《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习.doc

Chapter one Introduction

1.1什么是语言学

丄定义

语言学Linguistics

Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scientific study of la nguage.

1.1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学分支必考P2

普通语言学General Linguistics

The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called General linguistics.

The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （咅位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）

The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）

The study of mea ning in con text of use is called pragmatics ?（语用学）

1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3

（1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive? The task of linguists is supposed to describe the Ianguage people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.

规定性Prescriptive

It aims to lay down rules for "correct" behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.

描述性Descriptive

A linguistic study describes and analyzes the Ianguage people actually use?

（2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时

The description of a Ianguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a lang uage as it cha nges through time is a diachr onic study .In modern linguistics, syn chr onic study is more important?

历时语言学Diachronic linguistics

The study of language change through time? a diachronic study of Ianguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.

共时语言学Synchronical linguistics

The study of a given Ianguage at a given time.

（3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of Ianguage as primary, but not the written form? Reasons are: 1? Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many Ianguages that have only the spoken form; 3? In terms of function, the spoken Ianguage is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.

（4）Langue and parole语言和言语必考名解P4

The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between Iangue and parole early 20th cen tury. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use?Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study?He believes what linguists should do is to abstract Ian gue from parole, to discover the regularities go ver ning the actual use of la nguage and make them the subjects of study of linguistics?

语言langue （抽象）

The abstract lin guistic system shared by all members of a speech comm unity.

言语parole （具体）

The realization of langue in actual use?

（5）Competence and performance语言能力和语言运用

Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950's?

He defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performanee the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules?

语言能力Competence （抽象）

Compete nee is the ideal user's kno wledge of the rules of his language ?

语言运用performance （具体）

Performanee is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.

语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。

（6）Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语法

It is gen erally believed that the begin ning of modern linguistics was marked by the publicati on of F ? de Saussure's book "Course in General Linguistics" in the early 20th century? Before that is traditional grammar.

Differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics:

Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.

Modern linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary, not the written.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force Ianguages into a Latibased framework.

（Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive, it is based on' high7 written Ianguage.彳专统语法是规定性的，研究'高级'书面语。)

1?2什么是语言

1.2.1定义

语言Ianguage： Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用來交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

1.2.2Design features of language 必考P8

It refers to the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.

语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness 任意性

Productivity多产性 (创造性)

Duality双重性

Displacement 移位性

Cultural transmission 文化传递

(1)arbitrari ness

There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds?

P.S the arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for Ianguage to have an unlimited source of expressions

(2)Productivity

Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.

⑶ Duality

Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels?

⑷ Displacement

Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.

(5)Cultural transmission

Human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any Ianguage system? this showed that language is culturally transmitted? not by instinct, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species?

1.2.3Functions of language 语言的功能

Descriptive function, expressive function, social function

Six eleme nts of a speech eve nt specified by Jakobs on:

Addresser - Emotive 感情功能

Addressee -Conative 意动功能

Context - Referential 所指功能

Message - Poetic 诗歌功能

1? iips

2.teeth

3.teeth ridge ( alveolus)

4.hard palate

5? soft palace (velum) 6. uvula

7? np of tongue blade of tongue

9? back of tongue

10? vocal cords

11? pharyngeal cavity 12. nasal cavity

腭

后

唇

软

舌

?

?

?

15 9

发音器官

2齿 3 ?齿?

丄小舌7 ?舌尖

10.声带11咽腔

4 ?硬

腭

8.舌面

Contact- Phaticcommunion 寒暄功自呂Code - Metalinguistic 无语言功能

Chapter Two Phonology

2.2 Phonetics (语音学)

2.2.1定义

Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's Ianguages?

是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音

2.2.2Organs of speech

3 个区域：the pharyngeal cavity 咽腔?the throat, the oral cavity 口腔-the mouth, nasal cavity 鼻腔?the nose

清音Voiceless

When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart Jetting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.

浊音Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.

12

2.2.3宽式音标和严式音标

宽式音标Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

严式咅标Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics. 送气Aspirated 不送气Unaspirated

2.2.4Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类

Vowel and consonant 元音辅音

Vowel

The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.

Classification of English consonants

a: in terms of the manners of articulation（发音方式）：

Stops（爆破音）:pb td kg 6

Fricatives（摩擦音）:/f//v/ /（）//&/ /s//z/ /f//3/ h/ /r/ 8

Affricatives（塞擦音）:/tj//d”

Liquids（清音）:/l//r/

Nasals（鼻音）:/m,n, n/

Glides（滑音）:/w j/

b: in terms of place of articulation（发音部位）

bilabials（双唇音）:/p b m w/

labiodentals（唇齿音）：/f v/

dentals（齿音）：/d// 0 /

alveolarsf齿龈音）:/t d n I r s/ 6

palatals（腭音）:/j J 3 tj d/5

velars（软腭音）:/kgn/

glottal（喉音）:/h/

Classification of English vowels

a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,

b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open. c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded

d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short

2.3Phonplogy 咅位学

2.3.2Phone, phoneme and allophone

音素Phone

a phonetic unit or segment?

音位Phoneme

a collecti on of abstract sound features, a phono logical unit.

音位变体Allophones

Differe nt phones which can represe nt a phon eme in differ ent environme nts are called the allophones of that phoneme?

2.3.4explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule .

序列规则Sequential rules

Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.

同化规则Assimilation rules

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by" copying z a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

省略规则Deletion rule

It's a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represe nted ?

2.3.5Suprasegmental features 超咅段特征

重咅Stress

声调Tone

Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. 语调Intonation

Chapter Three Morphology 形态学

3.2Open class and closed class

Open class words实词，词数可增加

Closed class words虚词，词数稳定

3.3Morphemes 词素

词素Morpheme

The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language.

自由词素Free Morpheme

Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves?黏着i 可素Bound morphemes

Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.

3.4

词根Root

Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity?词缀Affix

The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme ?

3.4Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme

派生Derivational morphemes: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words

E.g. modern—modernize length—lengthen, fool—foolish, etc.

曲折Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers,sigrdfy such concepts as tense, numbeo case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning,

E.g. a) Number: tables apples cars

b) Pers on, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talki ng/talked c) Case: Joh n/Joh n's

派生词Derivation

复合词Compounds

Chapter Four Syntax 句法学

句法学Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.(句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支)

Phrase categories and their structures 短语分类与结构

Phrase categories-―the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).

The structure: specifier + head + complement

Head (丨卩丿卜语)?■一the word around which a phrase is formed

Spec讦ier （标志成分）―?the words on the left side of the heads

Complement （补足成分）?—the words on the right side of the heads

Phrase structure rules:

The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:

NP （Det 限定词）+ N + （PP）e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.

VP （Qual 修饰词）+ V + （NP）……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.

AP （Deg 程度词）+ A + （PP）v ery handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP （Deg） + P + （NP）on the shelf in the boat, quite near the station

STNP VP （A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase） Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.

句法类型Syntactic category

A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 表层结构S-structure

A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.

深层结构D-structure

A level of syntactic representation before the operation of necessary syntactic movement.

普遍语法General grammar

A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature Ianguage.

NP ' the student who likes linguistics' consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Spec讦ier ,N the head, S the complement. NP（---）W冠词、名词和子句组成,冠词是指示语，名词是核心词, 子句是补足语。

4.6.5Move a and constraints on transformations ci 位移和转换的限制必考（定义和作用）

This general rule is referred to as Move a , where "alpha" is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.

（我也不知道作用是啥，就会用）

这章重点就是画图

Chapter 5 Semantics

语义学Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义白勺研究）同义词Synonymy

It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.

多义词Polysemy

It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.

同音（形）界义Homonymy

It refers to the phenome non that words have d iff ere nt mea nings have the same form, j.e, differ ent words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, or in both.

上下义关系Hyponymy

It refers to the sense relati on between a more general, more in elusive word and a more spec讦ic word? the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

反义词Antonymy

It' s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different dimension.

预设Presupposition

It' s a sema ntic relati on ship or logical conn ecti on. A presupposes B?蕴涵Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B.

A: Mark married a blonde heiress?

B: Mark married a blonde?

句子间tl勺意义关系sense relation between sentences

X is synonymous with Y. 互为同义、同对错

X entails Y.包含关系?X包含Y

X presupposes Y.假设、推测由X推测出Y

X is a contradiction. 矛盾句

X is semantically anomalous.不等逻辑、错误逻辑

5.2.3Contextualism语境论必考,考啥未知P64自己看书

5.5.1 Componential analysis

语义成分分析Componential analysis

Comp on ential an alysis is a way proposed by the structure sema nticists （结构语义学）to an a lyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features （语义特征）?述谓分析Predication analysis A way to an a lyze sentence mean ing.

主项（论元）argument+ （谓词）predicate

Eg. （The dogs）主项（barks）谓词.

带一个主项的述谓one-place predication

Chapter 6 pragmatics

语用学Pragmatics必考

The study of how speakers of a Ianguage use sentences to effect successful communication.

The study of language in use or Ian guage comm un icati on; the study of the use of con text to make in fere nee about meaning.

Pragmatics=sema ntics+con text

语境Context

It is gen erally con siderd as con stituted by the kno wledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语句意义与话语意义Sentence meaning V.S utteranee meaning

If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation, then we treat it

as a sentence?

If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.

Utteranee is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

6.2

言语行为理论Speech act theory必考P80

It， s an imports nt theory in the pragmatic study of Ian guage .it' s a philosophical explanati on of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ” what do we do when using language?”

The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act （言内行为）,the illocutionary act （言夕卜彳亍为）,the perlocutionary act （言后行为）and the categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.

言内行为Locutionary Act

A locuti on ary act is the a ct of utteri ng words, phrases ‘clauses, it' s the act of con veyi ng literal meaning by means of syntax, lexic on and phono logy ?

言外行为lllcotionary Act

An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker" s intention it' s the act performed in saying something.

言后行为Perlocutionary Act

Perlocuati on ary Act is the act performed by or resulti ng from sayi ng somethi ng? it' s the consequenee of ,or the change brought about by the utteranee.

Searle's classification of speech act 必考P82

阐述性Representatives——to commit the speaker to something" s being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said?

例词:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing 最有代表性，

扌旨令'性Directives■一are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something?仮ij 词:invitin已suggesting Requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening,

ordering是特有实例

承诺'性Commissives?一whe n speaki ng the speaker puts himself un der obligati on.

例词:promising, undertaking, vowing 最典型

表达类Expressives-一the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.

例词:apologizing ,thanking, congratulating

宣告类Declarations—the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.

例句:l now declare the meeting open/l appoint you chairman of the committee/l fire you. 这五类differ in their strength or force?

合作原则（CP 原则）Principles of conversation （Co-operative principles）

Proposed by Paul Grice, a logician and philosopher

数量准则the maxim of Quantity——你说的话应包含所需内容月.不可超过内容要求

Make your contribution as informative as required;

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required

质量准则the maxim of Quality——不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false.

Do not say for which you lack adequate evidenee

关系准则the maxim of relation ----- 使你的话与话题相关be relevant

方式進则the maxim of manner——避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序

Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;

Be brief/be orderly?

Sign讦icance: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.