语言学概论 总结

Part One

★Definition of language

★ ★ ★Design features of language ★ ★Functions of language Part Two

★ Definition of linguistics ★ ★The scope of linguistics

★ ★

★ Important distinctions in linguistics

1）Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness 任意性

B. productivity

C. cultural transmission

D. finiteness 有限性 2）The distinction between parole 言语and langue 语言was made by _____. (2006)

A. Halliday C. Saussure 索绪尔（瑞士语言学家）

B. Chomsky 乔姆斯基（美国语言学家，转换生成语法的创始人）

D. Bloomfield 布洛姆菲尔德（美国语言学家教育家） 考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对概念的区分。 3）Language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed ” on a high way serves _____. (2010) A. an expressive function 表达功能 B. an informative function 信息功能 C. a performative function 行事/施为功能 D. a persuasive function 劝说功能

考点：语言的基本功能。信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能、寒暄功能、娱乐功能。其中最重要的是信息功能。 4）The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it?" is ___.

A. informative

B. phatic 寒暄功能

C. directive 指示功能

D. performative

P7-8

Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 1） Language is a system.

Systematic ---- rule-governed 受规则制约的, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules ； can ’t be combined at will. E.g. *bkli ， *I apple eat.

2）Language is arbitrary.

Arbitrary ---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes 表示. E.g . “pen ” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. 3）Language is symbolic 符号的in nature. Symbolic ---- words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention 惯例. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet ”----by Shakespeare 4）Language is primarily vocal.

Vocal ---- the primary medium 基本媒介is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.

5）Language is human-specific. 语言是人类特有的 Human-specific ---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. E.g.

bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.

1） Arbitrariness 任意性

2） Productivity/Creativity 创造性 3） Duality 二重性 4） Displacement 移位性

5） Cultural transmission 文化传递性

1） Arbitrariness

◎----No logical (motivated 有积极性的or intrinsic 固有的) connection between sounds and meanings. ◎Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary , e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy …

? Apes [e ?p] gibber ['d ??b ?].猴子唧唧叫 ? Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫 ? Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒 ? Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧

? Bulls bellow. Cows moo.老牛哞哞哞 ? Ducks quack [kw ?k].鸭子嘎嘎嘎 ? Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫 ? Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱 ? Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩 ? Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜

? Mice squeak [skwik]. 老鼠吱吱叫 ? Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫

◎Animals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently. English and Chinese cows sound the same, but not in English and

Chinese!

◎The arbitrary link between a linguistic sign语言

符号and its meaning, however, is also conventional

符合习俗的.

2) Productivity / Creativity

◎----Peculiar to是…特有的human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.

◎Language is resourceful资源丰富的because of its duality二元性and its recursiveness [ri'k?:sivnis]

递归性. We can use it to create new meanings.

◎Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly立即地understood by people who have never come across讲得清楚明白that usage before.

◎The recursive nature递归性of language provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For instance: ①He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who ...②This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt麦芽that lay in the house that Jack built.

3) Duality (double articulation)

Lower level----sounds (meaningless)

Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) 二层性是指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。（Lyons, 1981)

E.g. b-o-o-k (meaningless segments: lower level, secondary) →Book (meaningful unit: higher level, primary) Questions:①Can you think of some other systems with the property of duality? ②Why is this property generally assumed as central to language? ③Does animal language have this property?

The secondary level sounds

(meaningless) syllables

↓↓

The primary level morphemes

(meaningful) words

phrases

sentences ( etc.)

4) Displacement

----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present (in time and space): real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away 遥远的places. E.g. A gibbon长臂猿never utters发出 a call about something he ate last year.

◎Animal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”（直接刺激控制）. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. ◎Human language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus 刺激 in the world or any internal state.

5) Cultural transmission

◎----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).

◎Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees. ◎The story of a wolf child

狼孩, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.

1)referential [,ref?'ren?(?)l] (to convey message and information) (所指功能，即传达信息）

2) poetic[p??'et?k] (to indulge in language for its own sake)（诗学功能，即享受语言自身的乐趣）

3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions)（情感功能，即表达态度，感觉和情感）

4) conative['k?un?tiv] (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests)（意动功能，即通过指令和恳求说服和影响他人）

5) phatic['f?t?k] (to establish communion with others) （寒暄功能，即与他人建立交际）

6) metalingual[,met?'li?ɡw?l] (to clear up intentions and meanings). （元语言功能，弄清意图、词语和意义）注：1）emotive (expressive) function: releases feelings. Swear words骂人话

, obscenities猥亵, exclamation惊叹词, involuntary verbal言语的reactions.

2) phatic function: Good morning. How are you?

Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions元功能思想 of language.

◎For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor,

Johnny, yours, your obedient servant 敬上) indicate

the various grades of interpersonal relations.

◎The scientific study of human language ◎Aims of linguistic theory:

What is knowledge of language? (Competence) How is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) How is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing 性能/语言处理)

? Phonetics 发音/语音学 ? Phonology 音系/音韵学 ? Morphology 形态学

■ Syntax 句法

? Semantics

语义学 ? Pragmatics 语用学

? Descriptive vs. prescriptive ? Synchronic vs. diachronic ? Speech vs. writing ? Langue & parole

? Competence and performance 1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive ◎Don't say X. People don't say X.

The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.

◎The distinction lies in 在于prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.

◎Descritptive: the linguists tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a large community actually conform 遵照and does not seek to impose upon them other rules or norms of correctness. ◎Prescriptive ： the grammarians 文法家 tries to lay down 制定rules for the correct use of language and set the disputes over 就…进行辩论usage once and for all 彻底地. ( right / wrong) ◎Humorous grammar rules ：

⊕Never end a sentence with a preposition. ⊕And don't start a sentence with a conjunction. ⊕It is wrong to ever split 分离an infinitive 不定式.

⊕No sentence fragments. 2）Synchronic vs. diachronic

◎A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. ◎Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history .

◎Synchronic study 共时性研究---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) ◎Diachronic study 历时性研究---- description of a language through time (historical development of

language over a period of time)

3） Speech vs. writing

◎Speech ---- primary medium of language ◎Writing ---- later developed

4）Langue 语言 vs. parole 言语 (F. de Saussure) ◎Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.

◎Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use. ◎Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions. 5) Competence and performance (Chomsky)

◎Competence ---- the ideal user ’s knowledge of the rules of his language

◎Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication

◎Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

6) Traditional grammar vs modern linguistics ◎Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework

◎Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework

1. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar for it is mostly _________.

A. prescriptive

B. descriptive

C. subjective

D. Latin-based

2. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as ________.

A. abnormal

B. something to be feared

C.natural

D. unnatural

3. Of the “words ” listed below, _____is not an English word. A. [spin] B. [lkbi] C.[strikt] D. [desk]

4. The study of language development at some point in time is generally termed as ___________ linguistics. A. comparative 比较的 B. applied C. synchronic D. diachronic

5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. bang B. photo C. typewriter D. rumble

6. Modern linguistics give priority to speech because _____________.

A. speech sounds are derived from writing systems.

B. The spoken form is more basic than the written form.

C. Writing precedes speech in English language.

D. All the languages today have both spoken and written forms.

7. Which of the following statements is not the concern of sociolinguists?

A. The language a person uses reveals his social background.

B. There exist social norms that determine the type of language to be used on a certain occasion.

C. How does the human mind work when they use language.

D. To investigate the social aspects of language. 8. Language is ___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.

A. systematic

B. culturally transmitted

C. intuitive 凭直觉获知的

D. productive

9. ___________ studies the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.

A. Phonology

B. Semantics

C. Syntax

D. Morphology 10. The study of language as a whole is often called ____________ linguistics. A.

general B.

applied B.

generative D.

particular

11. The fact that different languages have different

words for the same object is a good illustration of the ___________ nature of language.

A. productive

B. dual

C. arbitrary

D. displacing

12. Which of the following is not a major branch of linguistics?

A. phonetics

B. phonology

C. speech

D. syntax 13. The application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching is ______________. A. computational linguistics B. anthropological linguistics

C. mathematical linguistics

D. applied linguistics 14. Modern linguistics

regards the written language as ____________.

A. primary

B. correct

C. secondary

D. stable 15. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as

more basic than writing, because ___________.

A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing

B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue

D. All of the above

16. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. comparative

17. Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language,

while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.

A. sociological,psychological

B.psychological,sociological

C. applied, pragmatic

D. semantic and linguistic

18. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. A. parole B. performance C. langue D. Language

19. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.

A. learning

B. teaching

C. books

D. both A and B

/语音学

●To draw your attention to the areas of the phonetic study.

●To assist you to know more about the International

Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)国际音标.

●To help familiarize you with the factors involved in describing English consonants and vowels.

1. What is the difference between “the phonic medium of language ” and “the speech sounds ”?

①The phonic medium of language refers to the limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication. 语言的声音媒介

②The speech sounds refer to the individual sounds within the range of the phonic medium of language. The phonic medium of language ≈ Family The speech sounds ≈ Family members

2. Why is speech considered more basic than writing? ①Statistically, speech exists in every language while no written form exists in two thirds of the 5000 languages in the world.

②Historically, speech came into being much earlier than writing.

③Functionally, writing is invented to record speech. ④Individually, speech is acquired before writing.

1. What is phonetics?

①Phonetics is the study of speech sounds. (Longman

Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics )

②Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language , that is, all the sounds that occur in the world ’s languages.

2. Discuss the relationship between articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics in terms of the process of human linguistic communication.

1. What organs are involved in producing language?

Nasal

Lips Resonating

cavity

共鸣腔

Teeth cavities

Teeth ridge

Oral cavity Hard palate

Speech

organs Soft palate Uvula Tongue

Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔

Vocal

cords 声带Lungs

2. How are speech sounds produced?

◎Human vocal tract 声道is just like a (extremely flexible) m musical instrument!

◎The human vocal tract can be rapidly reshaped in many different ways to take on different resonating 产生共鸣的properties.

◎The effect of this is to create the variety of different sounds in human speech. 3. The diagram of speech organs: 1) Lips 2) Teeth

3) Teeth ridge (alveolar) 齿龈

4) Hard palate 硬腭 5)Soft palate (velum) 软腭 6) Uvula['ju:vjul ?]小舌 7)Tip of tongue 舌尖 8)Blade of tongue 舌面

1. 9 Glottal. )Back of tongue 舌背 10)Vocal cords 声带 11)Pharyngeal cavity 咽喉 12)Nasal cavity 鼻腔

broad and narrow

transcriptions 宽式和严式转写P17-18

1. What are main principles of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?

①There should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound. ②The same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.

2. What is the difference between narrow

transcription (严式转写) and broad

transcription (宽式转写) ?

1) Broad transcription is regarded as phonemic transcription （音位转写）. It is widely used in textbooks and dictionaries. Examples: /stop/ /top/ /plein/

2)Narrow transcription is regarded as phonetic transcription （语音转写）. It is used to distinguish small difference in speech production.

Examples: [p ?at] vs. [spat] for "pot" vs. "spot"

1) Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics ，e.g. clear [ l ], [ pit ]

2) Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician 语言学者 for careful study, with diacritics ，e.g . dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ? ]

1.---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: ①Vowels ②Consonants

2. What is the difference between a consonant and a vowel?

3、Classification of consonants P19-20

---- English consonants may be classified according to three dimensions三维:

1）The manner of articulation 2）The place of articulation

3）Voicing

1）The manner of articulation发音方法：

①stops/plosives塞音②fricatives擦音

③affricates 塞擦音④liquids 流音

⑤nasals鼻音⑥glides/semivowels 滑音

2）The place of articulation发音部位：

①bilabial双唇音的②labiodental唇齿音的

③dental齿音的④alveolar齿龈音的

⑤palatal硬腭音的⑥velar软颚音的

⑦glottal喉音的

1.Bilabial

2. Labiodental

3.Dental or interdental

4. Alveolar

5. Palatoalveolar

6.Palatal

7. Velar 8.Uvular 9.Glottal

4. The description of English consonants:

1、 What are the 5 major factors involved in describing vowels?

1)The position of the tongue in the mouth

2)The openness of the mouth.

3)The shape of the lips.

4)The length of the vowel

5)The tongue movement

Examples: [ei ]→a diphthong 双元音

[i:] →close front long/tense unrounded vowel (a monophthong单元音)

2、Classification of vowels P20-22

---- English vowels can be divided into two large categories:

1）Monophthongs or pure/single vowels

2）Diphthongs or gliding vowels

◎Front Vowels, central vowels and back vowels：According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:

Front vowels: /i:/, /i/, /e/, /?/, /ɑ / Central vowels: /Λ/, /?/, /?:/

Back vowels: /α:/, /?/, /? :/, /u/, /u:/

◎According to the openness of the mouth：

Close:/i:/, /i/, /u/, /u:/

Semi-close半闭:/e/, /?:/

Semi-open:/?/, /? :/

Open:/?/, /?/, /ɑ /, /Λ/, /α:/

The description of English vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements:

(close, semi-close, position of the highest part of the tongue (front,

length of the vowel (long vs. short / tense vs.

(rounded vs. unrounded).

?but, word,

?reed, pad, bit, bed,

?who, true, boss, walk,

?fool, top, good, father,

◎We can now describe the English vowels in this way: [i:] close front long/tense unrounded vowel

[u] close back short/lax rounded vowel [? ] semi-open central short/lax unrounded vowel [?] open back short/lax rounded vowel 4、Underline the words that contain the sound as required:

?

A central vowel:

mad lot but boot word ? A front vowel:

reed pad load fate bit bed cook ?

A rounded vowel:

who bus her hit true boss bar walk ?

A back vowel:

paid reap fool top good father

P22-29

Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages. 1、Phonetics 发音学 and Phonology 音系学 ⊕Both deal with speech sounds

⊕Phonetics: deals with physical properties 物理性质 of speech sounds ( how they are produced, the phonetic features, classification)

⊕Phonology: deals with the organization of speech sounds in a particular language 2、Phone 音素

A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not

necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don ’t, e.g. [ɑ?ns ?], [?ns ?r]. 由于不同的音素是从肺中压出的气流在通过口腔的不同形状和舌头的不同位置时用送气的不同方法形成的，鉴定音素的性质时，就必须考虑发音的方式和发音的位置。由于英语的字母数量有限，语音学便制定了一套专门的标音符号来标定语音或音位，如 [θ] 音素、/θ/ 音位、等等。 3、Phoneme 音位

⊕A phoneme---- is a phonological unit ; it is a unit of distinctive value ; an abstract unit , not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context , e.g. the phoneme

/p/ can be represented differently in [p ? t], [t ? p] and [sp ?? t].

⊕[p ?], [p] do not cause difference in meaning. 4、Language differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.

peak [p [p unaspirated 拼pin

h i:k]

aspirated 送气

h ]

宾bin speak [spi:k]不送气

[p ]/p/

汉语区分English 不区分phone phoneme square phonetic

音素

Phonetician Phonetics slant lines / /

phonemic

transcription 音位转写

Phoneme 音位

Phonologist 音系学家Phonology 音系学brackets [ ]

transcription 语音转写

Phone

语音学家语音学

5、Allophone 音位变体

⊕Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. ⊕E.g . phone [p] in spit & phone [p ?] in pit are allophones of the same phoneme /p/ ⊕(谈及allophone 必须以某个phoneme 为参照物) ⊕One of a set of non-distinctive 非区别性的realizations of the same phoneme.

⊕Corresponds to something physical produced by a speaker ⊕E.g. [th] is an allophone of /t/. 6、Free variants and free variation(自由变体) The difference may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of any distribution rule. E.g. either /ai/i:/ direction /ai/i/ 7、Principles used for distinguish or assimilate 吸收/使同化phonemes ：

1） Phonemic contrast(音位对立原则)

2） Complementary distribution(互补分布原则) 3） Minimal pair(最小对立体)