读《斯金纳和激进的行为主义》

读《斯金纳和激进的行为主义》
读《斯金纳和激进的行为主义》

读《B.F.斯金纳和激进的行为主义》

常兴禄前几天买了一本书,《三种心理学——弗洛伊德、斯金纳和罗杰斯的心理学理论》(第六版),Robert D.Nye著。这本书的第三章内容是B.F. 斯金纳和激进的行为主义,下面读这章内容的一些收获。

伯尔赫斯-弗雷德里克-斯金纳(Burrhus Frederic Skinner , 1904 —1990),心理学家,主要著作有《沃尔登第二》、《科学和人类行为》、《超越自由和尊严》等。

心理学不是研究心理的科学,而是研究行为的科学。(《行为主义观点的心理学》,华生)

决定行为的因素有两个:环境和本能,本能由基因决定,而基因又是自然选择而来,所以,行为终究是有环境决定的。

基因,本能,欲望,情绪。要避免使用这些概念,不自觉地使用这些概念会使人忽视真正的决定因素——环境的作用。

“斯金纳箱”是为了研究环境对行为的决定作用而产生的,它体现了研究者对环境的绝对控制,使环境和行为之间的函数关系(因果联系)清晰可见。

行为分为:反应行为和操作行为。

反应行为分为:无条件反射和反应条件反射。无条件反射是天生的,如瞳孔反射、角膜反射、膝跳反射、收缩反射。食物引发唾液分泌,这一过程中,食物被称为无条件刺激,分泌唾液为无条件反射。

反应条件反射,即条件反射,巴普洛夫的实验是最经典的例子。无条件刺激和另一无关刺激同时出现,引发无条件反射。多次重复此过程后,即使不出现无条件刺激,无关刺激同样可以引发无条件反射。此时原来的无关刺激变成条件刺激,而原来的无条件反射变成条件反射。(把无条件刺激转变为条件反射的过程可以很好地应用于教育领域。)

与条件刺激相似的刺激同样可以引发条件反射,这一现象被称为刺激泛化,华生和罗塞莉. 维纳(Rosalie Rayner )对一个名叫阿尔波特的几个月大的男孩做实验。实验前,捶打钢条的声音引发阿尔波特的恐惧反应。实验时,让捶打钢条的声音和一只白鼠同时出现,引发恐惧反应。多次重复后,小白鼠从无关刺激变成条件刺激,可单独引发恐惧反应。进而,与小白鼠相似的物体(白色的兔子、一只狗或一件毛皮大衣)同样引发了恐惧反应。这样的现象就是刺激泛化。(很多时候新行为的习得就是刺激泛化)

操作行为

操作行为受到的是行为结果的控制。操作行为未做进一步细分,只谈到了操作性条件反射的概念。我认为应该还有一个操作性无条件反射的概念,但是

没有。而且,我觉得可以把无条件反射、反应条件反射和操作性条件反射说成是无条件反应行为、有条件反应行为和有条件操作行为,没有提到的操作性无条件反射可以说成是无条件操作行为,这样理解起来会更方便。

人与人的个性的不同,主要体现在操作性条件反射的不同。而这种自发性的行为依靠的是强化。

强化

强化和奖励不同,不能起到强化作用的奖励不是强化。而且,强化通常是潜移默化地进行的。

在斯金纳的操作行为主义心理学中,“个性”被认为是个体生活经历中受各种强化所得结果的整合。虽然个性的形成和发展过程中遗传的基因物质也起了部分作用,但是是由强化塑造和保持的。

强化分为:正强化和负强化。

正强化是增加某种刺激使得行为得到强化而增多,负强化是减少某种刺激使得行为得到强化而增多。

斯金纳提出了二级强化物的概念,它是和食物和性欲之类的一级强化物想匹配而具有强化作用的。关注、赞同和关爱是二级强化物还是一级强化物还没有定论,它们可能与基本的生物因素有关,也可能与得到食物和吸引异性有联系。

与强化对应的是“惩罚”,是为了减少行为的出现而增加或减少的刺激。斯金纳不提倡在教育中使用惩罚。

行为的形成

“形成”一词指的就是相邻的强化情景。拿婴儿学说话为例:刚开始的时候只要他说得有点相似我们就给他强化,后来就不行了,他必须说得比较像才给强化,最后则是只强化他的准确发音。还有一些例子,如孩子从轻声说话到大吵大闹,民众从呼吁政府关注到爆发大规模破坏行动。

斯金纳倡导使用程序化教学。现在出现了可以呈现程序化材料的教学机器。

保持行为:强化时间表

强化的作用不仅仅在于形成行为,更重要的作用是保持已建立的行为。

连续强化和间歇强化,间歇强化消退过程要慢得多。

家长对孩子闹脾气的反应有时关注,有时不关注(间歇性强化),家长要消除孩子的坏毛病就比较困难。一些非常顽固的行为通常是由间歇性强化形成的。

间歇强化分为:间隔强化和比例强化。

间隔强化以时间为基础,比例强化以次数为基础。间隔强化分为:固定间隔强化(FI )和变化间隔强化(VI)。比例强化分为:固定比例强化

(FR和变化比例强化(VR 强化的随意性越大,反应的稳定性也就越大。

在固定间隔强化和固定比例强化中,当要求的比例很高时,会出现休息效应。当要求作出反应的次数超过了某个限度时,有时反应就停止很长一段时间,斯金纳称这种情况为意志缺失。例如:一个学生努力学习,却不能找份好工作,因为强化安排让他“心衰力竭” ,这种“衰竭” 同样出现在对鸽子的试验中。

对于这种休息期,可以用变化间隔强化和变化比例强化来消除。

在C.B.Ferster 和斯金纳1957 年的一本书《强化安排》中,他们讨论了16 中强化安排。有混合强化安排、同步强化安排、链式强化安排等。

自我控制与创造力

不良行为因其能带来即时的畅快而受到即时强化(正强化),而自制行为则因能减少不良行为带来的恶果而受到强化(负强化)。

不必假设任何内部力量的存在,即使在个体作出自我决定时,真正的控制仍然来自于环境和个人过去和现在的经历中。

能表现出创造性的人并非存在于真空中,他们往往拥有以往的强化史而形成的大量行为。特殊环境造成的行为中出现的变异也可以导致创造性。

意识过程思考和体验是遗传物质和个人经验的结果,而不是行为的原因。它们可以看成是一种反应,可以进行行为主义的分析。

自我观察来自内部刺激和他人的反应,后者更重要。认知过程中,有强化塑造的行为,也有规则约束的行为,后者可以解释前者。

驱力和情绪用驱力来解释行为会使人忽视真正的原因——环境。同样,斯金纳在谈到情绪时,他所指的是一种内部和外部的反应,而不是行为的原因。

反感控制与惩罚

个体之间会用反感来控制彼此的行为。斯金纳反对为了社会习俗而使用反感控制,他相信正强化更有效,主要原因是它的结果的预计性更强,引发不良反应的可能性也要小。

惩罚也是如此。斯金纳说,“假如我可以为人类做点贡献的话,那就是找出惩罚的替代物。”

问题行为:原因与治疗

通常认为是心理疾病的反应可能是通过学习获得的,除了反感控制

和惩罚外,还有不充分的正强化或是对不良行为的强化。

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