《英语语言学》答案完整版资料讲解
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版
考核方法：闭卷考试
时间：100分钟
题型：
I. 单项选择(15×1’=15’)
II．判断(15×1’=15’)
III．填空(10×1’=10’)
IV．术语解释(5×2’ =10’)
V．简答题(4×5’ =20’)
VI. 分析题（30’）
重点掌握的术语：
1. Linguistics
The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
2. design features
They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality.
3. Displacement
Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places.
4. Duality
It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously.
5. Arbitrariness
It is generally the case that there is no ‘natural’ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.
6. Manner of articulation
It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated.
7. Place of articulation
It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated.
8. articulatory phonetics
The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’ is articulatory phonetics.
9. Phonology
The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language.
10. Assimilation
It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ‘copied’ by the other. For example, the word ‘can’ in the sentence ‘I can go.’may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g].
11. Back-formation
A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word
‘donation’ first came into use and then the verb ‘donate’ was created from it.
12. Morpheme
It is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. For example, the word tourists contains three morphemes tour, -ist, and -s.
13. Immediate Constituent
It is an approach to describe the regular structures of the language. It is designed to show constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction.
14. Syntax
The study of structure and ordering of components within a sentence.
15.semantics
The study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentence in particular.
16. Hyponymy
When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described as hyponymy.
17. Homonymy
It is used when one word is written and spoken are the same while possessing different meanings. For example, the bank can be referred to a river and financial institution as well.
18.synonymy
It refers to the case that two or more forms have very closely related meanings, which are often, but not always, intersubstitutable in sentence,such as broad and wide.
19. Pragmatics
The study of what the writer or speaker of those words intended to convey.
20. Synchronic
It is the case that we concentrate on variation in language in terms of differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time.
第一章语言的起源
概念辨析
The “bow-wow” theory
The “yo-heave-ho” theory
思考
“bow-wow”理论和“哟哦呵”理论的差异何在？
The former theory means that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them while‘yo-he-ho’ theory means a set of grunts, groans and curses involved in physical effort
自然声音模仿假说有什么不足之处？
On the one hand, it does not answer our question regarding the origins of the sounds produced because primates have grunts and social calls, but they do not have developed the capacity for speech.
On the other hand, soundless and abstract things have not been explained since a language cannot be only a set of words used as‘names’ for entities.
第三章语言的属性
概念辨析
language
Design features of language
Displacement
Arbitrariness
Duality
应用
能够根据所观察到的语言现象来解释语言的定义性特征。
能够根据语言的定义性特征来区别人类语言和动物交流系统
思考
人类语言有哪些功能？
First, it has the function of cultural transmission. People pass knowledge, skills from one generation to the next only through oral language especially in the old days,
Second, it has the function of communication. Human use their language to communicate with each other, socially or emotionally, to indicate their friendliness, cooperation or annoyance and pleasure.
Third, it plays an important role in thinking. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel it necessary to speak their thoughts aloud.
动物交流系统里存在“说谎”吗？
It absolutely exists in animal communication system. For example, some animals will pretend to die to avoid being eaten. Therefore,it is common phenomenon in animal for survive or foods.
第五章语音学
概念辨析
Articulatory/acoustic/auditory phonetics
manners of articulation vs. places of articulation
Consonants vs. V owels
Whether they are produced with obstruction of the air stream in the mouth.
phonetics vs. Phonology
Production and characteristics of speech sound vs. How speech sound forms and abstract or mental aspect of it.
broad transcription vs. narrow transcription
Whether they have allophones
理解
Speech organs
The classification and description of consonants
The classification and description of vowels
应用
能够识别发声器官图中的发声器官名称
Vocal cords声带alveolar 齿龈palate 上颚velum软腭
能够根据发音部位/方式英语辅音进行分类和描述。
发音部位bilabial [p][b][m][w] labiodental [f][v] dental[θ][e] alveolar[t][d][s][z]
a l v e o-p a l a t a l[?][?][t?][d?][j]v e l a r[k][g][?]g l o t t a l[h]
发音方式Fricative [f][v][θ][e][s][z][?][?] affricate[t?][d?]
能够描述元音
前元音/i/ /i:/ /e/ /?/
中元音/?/ /?/ /?:/
后元音/u/ /u:/ /?/ /?:/ /a:/
思考
长元音是短元音的时间延长吗？
the length and tenseness in articulation.
基本元音系统在元音描述和分类中有什么用处？
With the cardinal vowel as reference, the vowel in a particular language can be accurately described without much difficulty.
第六章音系学
概念辨析
Phonetics vs. Phonology
Phones, Phonemes and allophones
The minimal unit in the sound system of a language is phoneme. Many different versions of that sound-type produced in actual speech are phones. And these phones are allophones.(from abstract to specific and the whole of the specific.)
Phonemic contrast vs. Complementary distribution
Phoneme vs allophone(like [p=] and [p h])
Syllables
Must contain a vowel sound.
assimilation
理解
The relation among phones, phonemes and allophones
The different types of assimilation
Regressive, progressive and double assimilation
The different types of deletion(elision)
应用
能够分析语音学和音系学的区别
能够根据根据音位对立概念来组建和设计最小对子和最小对子组
能够根据互补分布概念来理解同一音位在不同语音环境下的发音效果
能够清楚地分析音节结构
能够根据同化现象来解释语流中的音变现象
思考
如何确定语言中的音位？
we can distinguish a phoneme in terms of meaning because each phoneme can produce different meaning in a language, such as, [s]sound in the word ‘sing’ and [θ]sound in the word ‘thing’. Since the two words have different meaning, the two sound are different phonemes.
开音节和闭音节有何不同？
第七章构词法
概念辨析
Blending vs. Clipping
The combining of two separate forms to produce a single new term such as ‘smog’which is from smoke and fog.
The element of reduction is called clipping such as gas which is used more frequently than gasoline.
Derivation vs. Back-formation
It is the most common word-formation process in the production of new words by means of affixes.
Prefix vs. Suffix
Added to the beginning of a word or the end of the word.
运用
能够根据构词法来辨识所出现的新词
Coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronym and derivation.
思考
前缀和后缀在构词法中的作用有何不同？
In general, prefixes are to show the direction of the original form while suffixes are to show the parts of speech of it.
转类词(converse)和同音同形异义(homonymy)字有差异吗？
Converse emphasize the difference if its part of speech while homonymy focus on the difference in its meaning.
第八章形态学
概念辨析
Free morphemes vs. Bound morphemes
Whether they can stand by themselves as single words.
Lexical morphemes vs. Functional morphemes
Whether they carry the ‘content’ of message we convey.
Derivational morphemes vs. Inflectional morphemes
The former are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.
The latter are used to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.(plural or single, past tense or not, comparative or possessive,present participant or past participant.)
理解
Morphemes
Inflectional morphemes
应用
能够根据词素的分类对英语句子进行简单的形态描述
e.g.The girl -’s wild ness shock -ed the
(functional) (lexical) (inflectional) (lexical) (derivational) (lexical) (inflectional)(functional)
teach er -’s
(lexical) (derivational) (inflectional)
能够区分派生词素和曲折变化词素
思考
序数词词尾是派生词素还是屈折变化词素？
派生词素
词根和词干有什么区别？
Root is the form which cuts out all its affixes while stem is the form which only deletes its inflectional morphemes. For example ‘teacher’ is stem while ‘teach’ is root in the word ‘teachers’.
第九章短语和句子
概念辨析
Prescriptive grammar vs. Modern linguistics
Collect some samples of the language then describe the regular structures of it.
理解
Agreement (number/person), gender (natural gender/grammatical gender),case
Tense, aspect and voice of verbs
掌握
Parts of speech
Noun adjective verb adverb conjunction (what does it refer to and how it is used)
IC analysis
应用
能应用直接成分分析法对英语简单句进行分析并标示节点名称
｛S〔NP[A rt The] [N dog]〕〔VP[V followed]〔NP[Art the] [N dog]〕〕｝.
学会直接成分分析法树形图的绘制
S
NP VP
Det N V NP
Det N
The the ball
第十章句法
概念辨析
Deep structure vs. Surface structure
An abstract level of structural organization or not
理解
Generative grammar
Analogically, if the sentences of a language can be seen as a comparable set, then there must be a set of explicit rules that can produce all those sentences. Such a set of explicit rules is a generative grammar.
Phrase structure rules
rules state that the structure of a phrase of a specific type will consist of one or more constituents in a particular order.
S→NP VP VP→V NP (PP)(Adv)
NP→{Art (Adj) N,PN} PP→Prep NP
Recursion
repeat some symbols on the right of the arrow. e.g. VP→V S
掌握
Syntactic description
Phrase structure rules
应用
能应用表层结构和深层结构概念来分析歧义结构（结构树形图）
能应用短语规则来分析ungrammatical sentences的原因
学会绘制句子结构的树形图
S
NP VP
Art N V NP Adv
PN
The father helped George yesterday.
第十一章语义学
概念辨析
Conceptual meaning vs. Associative meaning
Whether it covers those basic, essential components of meaning
Homonymy vs. Polysemy
It has a single entry or not.
理解
Componential analysis
Features such as ‘+animate, ?animate’; ‘+human, ?human’, ‘+female, ?female’.
Semantic roles
Agent and theme (patient) Instrument and experiencer Location, source and goal
掌握
各类词汇语义关系如synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, homonymy, polysemy 等
Synonymy同义vs. Antonymy反义hyponymy上下义关系homonymy同形异义vs. Polysemy 多义（a single entry,express one meaning of it but in different specific aspects)
Collocation
One word tend to occur when conveying others which is the distinct side from the original one.
应用
能应用反义关系概念对反义词进行分类（分级、互补、关系）
Gradable antonymys are the ones that the negative of one member of them does not necessary imply the other.
Non-gradable antonymys or complementary pairs
能应用词源理论来对同音同形异义和一词多义进行辨析
第十二章语用学
概念辨析
direct speech vs. indirect speech
Whether the result of it is an direct speech act.
locutionary act/illocutionary act (force)/perlocutionary act
Locutionary act (发话行为): the act performed when we speak, i.e. the act of producing a sound, word or sentence. If we say a word “Good.”,we produced a word.
Illocutionary act(行事行为): we make clear our purpose in producing sounds, the way we intend them to be understood (force); the act performed by saying something. If we say a word “Good.”, we are praising him or her.
Perlocutionary act (取效行为): the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. If we say a
word “Good.”, we want to make him or her happy.
cooperative principle vs. conversational implicature
Cooperative Principle (CP): Make your conversational contribution such as is required , at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
Conversational Implicature (含义): the implied meaning
掌握
语用学与语义学的核心区别
Pragmatics focus on content not only its meaning.
合作原则的四个准则
QUANTITY Make your contribution as informative as is required.
Ex.---- Where is X?
---- He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.
QUALITY Try to make your contribution on that is true.
Ex. Every nice girl loves a sailor.
RELATION Make your words are relevant to what people talk about.
Ex.---- Mrs. X is an old bag.
---- The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?
MANNER Be perspicuous.
Ex. “Never seek to tell thy love, Love that never told can be.”
implicature与illocutionary act的共同点
The real intention are both not the words themselves but the the inner purpose of the speaker.
应用
能够用例子分别说明言语行为理论的三个概念。
能准确表达合作原则的四个准则，并能举例说明，还能表述违背某一准则而得出的会话含义。
了解会话含义的几个特征，并能用例子给予解释说明。
(i) Calculability
Ex. Referential letter
(ii) Cancelability/Defensibility
Ex. a. John has three cows.
b. John has only three cows.
c. John has three cows, if no more.
d. John has at least three cows.
(iii) Non-detachability
A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Ex. a. John’s a genius.
b. John’s a mental prodigy.
c. John’s an enormous intellect.
d. John’s a big brain.
(iv) Non-conventionality
a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims
Ex. a. John has three cows.
b. John has only three cows.
c. John has some cows.
代表性人物
Chomsky 乔姆斯基转换-生成语法创始人
Saussure 瑞士索绪尔现代语言学之父
Bloomfield 布龙菲尔德美国结构主义语言学
资料分析精典题型附答案
一、根据所给文字、图表资料回答106―110题。 2010年1月-2011年7月汽车产量及月同比增速 106．2011年7月产量低于上半年月均产量的是（） A.电 B. 钢材 C. 水泥 D. 乙烯 107．2011年7月轿车产量占汽车产量的比重与上年同期相比（） A. 上升了约7个百分点 B. 下降了月7个百分点 C. 上升了约14个百分点 D. 下降了月14个百分点 108．2010年年3-12月中，汽车单月产量超过150万辆的月份有（）个。 A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 7
109．下列选项中，汽车产量同比增速最低的是（） A. 2010年4月 B. 2010年5月 C. 2011年4月 D. 2011年5月 110．以下说法与资料相符的是（） A. 表中产品2011年7月产量同比增速均慢于上半年 B. 2011年7月，十种有色金融比上年同期增产9.8万吨 C. 2009年11月，汽车日均产量超过4万辆 D. 2010年汽车产量最低的季度是第一季度 二、根据所给文字、图表资料回答111―115题。 某市2010年全年实现农业增加值124.3亿元，比上年下降1.6%。粮食播种面积22.3万公顷，比上年减少0.3万公顷；粮食产量115.7万吨，比上年下降7.3%。 全市农业观光园1303个，比上年增加9个；观光园总收入17.8亿元，比上年增长16.7%。民俗旅游实际经营户7979户，比上年减少726户；民俗旅游总收入7.3亿元，增长20.7%。种业收入14.6亿元，比上年增长13.5%。设施农业占地面积18323公顷，比上年下降2.3%；实现收入40.7亿元，增长20.1%。2010年主要农副产品产量
2016-英语语言学期末试题练习-+答案
英语语言学练习题 Ⅰ. Matching Match each of the following terms in Column A with one of the appropriate definitions in Column B. Column A 1.displacement https://www.360docs.net/doc/a113542154.html,ngue 3.suprasegmental feature 4.deep structure 5.predication analysis 6.idiolect 7.pidgin 8.mistakes 9.interlanguage 10.motivation 11.arbitrariness https://www.360docs.net/doc/a113542154.html,petence 13.broad transcription 14.morphology 15.category 16.errors https://www.360docs.net/doc/a113542154.html,ponential analysis 18.context 19.blending 20.culture 21.learning strategies 22.selectional restrictions 23.phrase structure rules 24.culture diffusion Column B A.Learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. 9 B.Learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, having a strong impact on his efforts n learning a second language. 21 C.The rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. 23 D.Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 24 E. A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. 6 F. A special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 7 G.The kind of analysis which involves the breaking down of predications into their constituents- ---- arguments and predicates. 5 H.They refer to constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 22 I.The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 4 J.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. 3 K.The study of the internal structure of words, and the rules that govern the rule of word formation. 14 L.The abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 2 https://www.360docs.net/doc/a113542154.html,nguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. It is one of the distinctive features of human language. 1 N.Learner’s conscious, goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. 10 O.The total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. 20 P.The common knowledge shared by both the speaker and hearer. 18
2019国考资料分析解析
2019 年资料分析解析 【题号】2019-国家-116. 【答案】B 【知识点】平均数计算 【扩展知识点】多平均数 【细分知识点】 【解题思路】 第一步，本题考查现期平均数计算。根据图 1 可知，2017 年 7~9 月全国进口药品数量分别为 1.1、1.2、1.1 万吨，根据图 2 可知，进口药品金额分别为 19.6、23.8、21.9 亿美元。 第二步，2017 年第三季度全国平均每吨进口药品单价为19.6 + 23.8 + 21.9 = 65.3 ≈ 19 万 1.1 + 1.2 + 1.1 3.4 美元。因此，选择 B 选项。 【题号】2019-国家-117. 【答案】C 【知识点】增长率计算 【扩展知识点】增长率 【细分知识点】 【解题思路】 第一步，本题考查增长率计算，根据图 2 可知，2017 年 5 月全国进口药品金额 27.8 亿美元，同比增长 54.4%；2017 年 4 月全国进口药品金额 18.8 亿美元，同比增长 12.2%。 第二步，2016 年 5 月全国进口药品金额为 27.8 ≈ 27.8 ≈ 18 亿美元，2016 年 4 月全 1 + 54.5% 1.55 国进口药品金额为 18.8 ≈ 18.8 ≈ 17 亿美元。 1 + 12.2% 1.1 2 第三步，2016 年 5 月全国进口药品金额环比增速为18 - 17 ≈ 1 ≈ 6% 。因此，选择 C 选 项。 【题号】2019-国家-118. 【答案】C 【知识点】简单比较 【扩展知识点】读数类 【细分知识点】 【解题思路】 17 17
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资料分析 14黑龙江 一、根据资料回答问题 2013年6月，社会消费品零售总额18827亿元，同比增长13.3%。其中，限额以上企业（单位）消费品零售额9764亿元，增长11.5%。1~6月社会消费品零售总额110764亿元，同比增长12.7%。 按经营单位所在地分，6月城镇消费品零售额16245亿元，同比增长13.0%；乡村消费品零售额14975亿元，增长14.3%。 按消费形态分，6月餐饮收入2059亿元，同比增长9.5%；商品零售16768亿元，增长13.8%。1~6月餐饮收入11795亿元，增长8.7%；商品零售98969亿元，增长13.2%。 在商品零售中，限额以上企业（单位）6月商品零售额9100亿元，同比增长12.5%，1~6月限额以上企业（单位）商品零售额51508亿元，增长11.7%。 101、关于2013年上半年的社会消费品零售额，能够从上述资料中推出的是： A．乡村消费品零售额占社会消费品零售额的比重低于上年同期水 B．6月的乡村消费品零售额比上年同期增长了200多亿元 C． 6月的餐饮收入占同期社会消费品零售总额的一成以上 D．限额以上企业（单位）商品零售额超过社会消费品零售总额
的一半 【解析】C。 102、2013年6月，限额以上企业（单位）消费品零售额占社会消费品零售总额的比重约为： A．52% B．58% C．64% D．46% 【解析】A。，选择A选项。 103、如保持2013年6月的同比增量不变，到哪一年的6月，限额以上企业（单位）商品零售额将首次超过1.5亿元？ A．2017年 B．2018年 C．2019年 D．2016年 【解析】B。
2019年公务员《资料分析》试题及答案(卷一)
2019年公务员《资料分析》试题及答案（卷一） 1、房地产开发项目的税后利润是指房地产开发企业缴纳( )之后的利润。 A. 营业税 B. 房产税 C. 土地增值税 D. 企业所得税 标准答案：D 解析：考察房地产开发项目税后利润的含义。房地产开发企业缴纳所得税之后的利润为税后利润。 2、在房地产市场营销中常说的“金九银十”现象，描述的是购房者的( )特征。 A. 消费能力 B. 消费动机 C. 消费行为 D. 消费结构 标准答案：C 解析：考察房地产消费行为调研的内容。房地产消费行为调研就是对消费者购买房地产的模式和习惯的调研。调研内容包括消费者购买房地产的时间分布，消费者在购买房地产的时间分布上有一定的习惯和规律，例如，房地产营销中常说的金九银十。 3、目前在火电领域诞生的新技术很多，联合循环技术就是其中
之一。简单来说，联合循环技术就是“一气两用”;将燃气轮机排出的高温废气，通过余热锅炉回收转换为蒸汽，进入蒸汽轮机后驱动其运转，两台轮机都将动能输送至发电机进行发电;废气再次进入锅炉，进一步将其中蕴含的热能转化为动能，降低最终排出气体的温度。这样不仅环保，还能节省燃料。启动速度快也是一大优点，其工作原理是在开机之初关闭运转较慢的蒸汽轮机，只启动燃气轮机，产生足够的热能后，再切换到联合循环模式。这一特点对于电力应急事件频发的大都市十分实用。 关于联合循环技术，下列说法与上述文字不相符的是： A.明显提高了发电效率 B.高温废气得以循环利用 C.停电时可在短时间内迅速启动 D.蒸汽轮机早于燃气轮机启动 4、在早已对漂亮假花、假树司空见惯的现代人眼里，干枯苍白的植物标本或许难有多少魅力可言。但在标本馆中，每一份看似不起眼的植物标本都代表着它在地球上的_____。它们虽然远离了最光雨露，告别了生长的土地，却在科学殿堂中_____了自己的生命。 依次填入划横线部分最恰当的一项是： A.经历重现 B.同类延续 C.存在超越 D.物种证明 5、2亿个气味受体细胞，而人类只有2000万个，但我们的嗅觉系统也是相当复杂而专业的，气味分子随气流进入鼻子，通过鼻腔顶
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结.doc
英语语言学一、名词解释 第一课 共时性 : Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical“point\A kind”inoftimedescription. which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. 语言 : The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. 任意性 : One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 第二课 音位 : Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 音位变体 : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. pair 最小对立体 : When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 第三课 形态学 : Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are ca lled morphemes 曲折词素 : Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. 第四课 语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. categories 句法范畴 : Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. structure 深层结构 : Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ s subcategorizationrties,iscalledprope deep structure or D- structure. structure 表层结构 : Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure. 第五课 指称 : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 同音异义 : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 上下义关系 : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 第六课 语用学 : Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 话语 : a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication. meaning 话语意义 : Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. act 言外行为 : An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker it is the’acts performedintention; in saying something.