英语语言学概论论文

英语语言学概论论文
英语语言学概论论文

英语幽默的语用分析

中文摘要

语言幽默效果的产生,关键是对语言常规用法的突破,它多依赖于指示语、语用先设、言语行为、关联程度以及质量准则、数量准则、关系准则、方式准则等语用因素的反常使用。

“所谓语言幽默,即由语言的各种要素的变异使用而创造的幽默。”“语言幽默氛围得以成功地在话语中得到动态显现,最根本源于其超常规的语言结构方式,即在辩证逻辑的制约下,突破语言学、文字学、词汇学、语法学和形式逻辑的一般规律,变格运用语言材料,造成不能按字面来理解的话语。言语幽默之所以能够生效,关键是对语言常规用法的突破。分析言语幽默仅从修辞角度出发是不够的,本文拟借助语用学理论,从指示语、语用预设、言语行为理论、会话含义理论、关联理论等方面对英语言语幽默予以分析。

【论文关键词】言语幽默语用先设言语行为理论关联理论

Abstract

Break conventional usage of language is the key to Produce language humorous effect. It is more dependent on instruction, pragmatic first set, abnormal use of speech acts, the degree of association and the quality standards, the number standards, norms, standards and other ways of pragmatic factors.

"The so-called language of humor, that is to use the various elements of language variation to create humor." "Language humorous atmosphere to successfully get dynamic appear in discourse, from the most basic language constructs its unconventional way, that dialectical under the constraints of logic, the general rules of breakthrough linguistics, philology, vocabulary, grammar and formal logic, declension use of language materials, resulting in not to understand the words literally. verbal humor was able to take effect, the key is to language conventional usage breakthrough. analyze humor only from the perspective of rhetoric is not enough, this article intends to help pragmatic theory, from the instructions, pragmatic default, aspects of speech act theory, conversational implicature, relevance theory of English humor be analyzed.

Key words: language humour、Pragmatic presupposition、The theory of speech acts、 Relevance theory

一、指示语与英语言语幽默

指示语包括人称代词、指示代词和指示副词等。它们的指示对象要根据话语的使用时间、地点、说话人、听话人的身份、实际情景中的物体和事件决定话语的意义。话语中的指示信息是理解话语的关键,指示语不明确,话语会令人费解甚至引起误解。说话者在进行言语交际时,必须根据语境适当转换指示语。当指示语应该进行转换,而说话者由于某种原因未能加以转换时,往往会制造一种由于违反常规而产生的幽默。如:

A schoolboy wanted a few more day’s holiday.He phoned to the teacher and in a voice,that,hehoped sounded like his fathers:

"I regret to say that Smith is ill in bed and willnot be able to return to school for three or four days."

"Oh,”said the teacher,"I’m sorry to hear that;who is speaking?"

"My father,sir."

在这则幽默故事里,小男孩以爸爸的名义给老师打电话请假,但当老师问到是谁在打电话时,他没有及时进行人称指示代词的转换仍然回答“我爸爸”,幽默的效果由此产生,小男孩的计谋也因为这个指示语错误而被识破。

由此可以看出,语法上的代词和语用上的指示语虽有某些相通之处,但是语用上的指示语是以发话人为基础,受话人理解话语时要对

指示语作相应的变换。

二、语用先设与英语语言幽默

先设是使用一个句子的先决条件。当一个句子预设另一个句子时,第二个句子必为真,不论第一个句子是真是假。如He stopped beating his wife的先设是他以前打过他的妻子。“而考虑语境因素的先设就是语用先设”是指通过一句话来有效地实施某一言外行为所必须满足的条件。语用先设有两个特征:一是合适性,即先设要与语境紧密结合,先设是言语行为的前提条件;二是共知性,也就是说,语用先设应该是说话双方共知的信息。说话人通过话语表达出来,听说人可以明白。但先设有时失去共知性,会造成交际失败,有时也会引发幽默。如:

Brown was out walking one day with his wife andhis very large family in the street. He was stopped bya policeman who grabbed him by the shoulder.

"Hold on,"protested Brown,"what have I done?”

"I certainly don’t know what you’ve done,”answered the policeman,"but I do want to know whythe crowd is following you."

在这则幽默里,警察抓Brown先生的先设是他作为警察应该对坏人进行询问;Brown先生又被一群人追着,肯定是坏人。可这个先设

缺乏共知性,Brown先生不知道警察把自己当成坏人,因此发生一幕闹剧。

三、言语行为理论与英语言语幽默

言语行为理论最先由英国哲学家奥斯丁提出,他首先把句子分为两类:叙事句和施为句。叙事句是指描述事物的句子,施为句是实施某种行为的句子。后来他觉得他的划分不太科学,认为任何一个言语行为都可以包含三种行为:(1)说话行为,即说出具有意义的话语的行为;(2)行事行为,即说明说话人意图的行为;(3)取效行为,即说话后产生的效果。例如:It is cold here.这句话需要说出;表达的意图是需要听话人采取保暖措施;产生的后果是窗子被关上。

奥斯丁的理论得到塞尔的修正和发展。塞尔认为,讲一种语言就是完成一系列的语言活动,如陈述、命令、提问等,如Could you pass the salt?不是问听话人是否有能力把盐递过来,而是请求听话人把盐递过来。他把上述言语行为叫做间接言语行为,即通过言语间接实施了某个行为,因此说话人的话语意义与句子意义往往是不一致的。幽默有时是由于曲解或不理解言语行为而产生。如:

One morning a London boy was sitting in a buson his way to school. He was sniffing all the time andmaking such a noise with his nose that the otherpeople in the bus began to shake their heads.

At last an old man who was sitting next to himsaid: "Little boy,have you got a handkerchief?"

"Yes,I’ve got a clean handkerchief in mypocket,”said the boy,"but I can’t let you have it.Mother says it is not polite to ask anybody for ahandkerchief. You must have and use your own."

这则故事能够让人忍俊不禁的原因是小男孩误解了老人的言语行为,老人问小男孩有没有手帕时,小男孩误以为老人要向他借手帕。老人言语行为的行事行为应是想让小男孩用手帕去擦鼻涕,而不是吸鼻涕发出声响,其取效行为应该是小男孩不再吸鼻涕。可是由于男孩误解了行事行为,因而也没有出现应有的取效行为。

四、会话含义理论与英语言语幽默

格赖斯认为人们正常的语言交流不是一系列无关系的语言,说话人是互相合作的,只有假定说话人是遵守一个原则,并为实现会话目标而努力,才能够指导会话含义。他把人们所遵守的这个原则称为合作原则。合作原则又分为四个准则:质量准则、数量准则、关系准则、方式准则。

会话含义可来自两个方面:对原则和准则的遵守和违反,相应地有两种会话含义:一般会话含义和特殊会话含义。幽默的产生往往是对原则的故意违反。

1.质量准则的违反与英语语言幽默

Speeder;Was I driving too fast?

State Cop:No,you are flying too slow?

当然我们知道司机是因为车开得太快而被警察拦住,可具有幽默感的警察却说司机飞得太慢了。他故意违反质量准则,说了与事件不符的话,不仅说明了司机开得太快,而且缓和了紧张的气氛。

2.数量准则的违反与英语言语幽默

Aunt: How did Jimmy do in this history examination?

Mothe r:Oh,not well at all,but it wasn’t his fault.Why did they ask him things that happened before thepoor boy was born?

妈妈只需回答“考得不好”就行,可她故意违反数量准则,说了超出需要的话,这不仅使这件事情变得不那么严肃,而且轻松地为杰米推卸了责任。

3.关系准则的违反与英语语言幽默

Customer: Waiter, there is a fly in the soup.

Waiter: All right,I’11 get you a fork.

这个侍者非常机智幽默,他没有像人们想象的那样不知所措或去找值班经理,而是回答了一句非常不相关的话:“我去拿把叉子”—叉子既不能用来叉苍蝇,也不能用来喝汤,但一个可能影响饭店生意及其他顾客胃口的局面,就被这句不相关的话给扭转了。可以想象,

顾客的心情会因此有所好转,事情也会得到圆满解决。

4.方式准则的违反与英语言语幽默

One day a pupil went to see his teacher andasked: "Will you punish a boy for a thing that he didnot do?" The teacher said: "No,Tommy. I never punish aboy for things he didn’t do. But why do you ask?"

The boy answered: "I ask because I did not domy homework."

方式原则要求说话要简洁、有序。可这位学生故意不按顺序,先问老师会不会因为一件没做的事惩罚学生,然后再说自己没做作业。而且也不简洁,不是直接问老师“我没做作业,你会惩罚我吗?”但他这种故意违反方式准则的做法,可以带来很好的效果,即便再严厉的老师,在听完这样的问题之后,也不会去惩罚他的学生。

五、关联理论与英语言语幽默

Sperber等认为,“语言交际仅有一条关联原则可言,即话语本身就具有相关性这一特点”。“如果一句话P和另一句话Q,加上背景知识,能产生它们单独加上背景知识时所不能产生的新信息,那么P 与Q就有关联。“关联原则无所谓遵守与违背”,只有关联程度之分,我们一般认为说话人与听话人采用的是最大关联性标准。

一个交际活动的顺利开展是建立在交际双方共有的背景知识上的,即“语言交际的基础是交际双方共有的认知环境”。有了这种背

景知识或认知环境,说话人可能对听话人选择合适的言语形式,听话人也才能理解说话人的言语行为。这种背景知识包含人们对世界的认识印象、各种各样的旧信息和由此产生的假设。由于交际双方各自的认识环境不同,对同一个言语行为的理解也不尽相同。如:

Bessie is a little girl.She is only five. She doesn’tgo to school,and of course,she doesn’t know how toread and write.But her sister Mary is a school girl.She is ten.

One day,Mary sees her little sister at the tablewith a pen in her hand and a big sheet of paper infront of her.

"What are you doing,Bessie?" she says.

"I’m writing a letter to my friend Kitty."saysBessie.

"But how can you?"says her sister, "You don’tknow how to write."

"Well,"says Bessie,"it doesn’t matter, becauseKitty doesn’t know how to read."

此则幽默的产生是基于两个人不同的认知环境,姐姐已经上学,认为写信必须会写字,这样收信人才会看懂信的内容,而妹妹还没有上学,她认为她的朋友不识字,所以不管写的是什么都无所谓。

英语的幽默话语,以其简练的语言形式,反映了现实生活中的各种乐趣和智慧,成为人们日常生活中不可缺少的一部分。要想真正理解和欣赏幽默,必须具备较强的语言和语用推理能力。因为只有认识

了幽默的各种语用因素对它的作用机制,才能很好地创造和理解幽默话语。本文试从语用学的基本理论出发对英语幽默进行了分析,旨在探究幽默和一些语用规则的关系,以期对英语幽默有更好的理解和欣赏,从而使英语交际更加生动有效。

英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)

一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 (一)课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业(本科段)的一门重要的专业理论课程,其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识,掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论,了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用,熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物;通过该课程的学习,考生可以从不同的角度了解语言(的性质),了解语言学习和语言教学,为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是:专业术语多,概念多,内容抽象,所以,考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程,如高级英语、泛读(三)、写作等,这样可以减少语言障碍,有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 (二)本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编,计十三章。第一编(一至二章)介绍了语言和语言学;第二编(三至八章)介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学;第三编(九至十二章)为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学,以及语言学理论与外语教学;第四编(十三章)介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习,要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求: 1、掌握语言的性质、功能,以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念; 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论; 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用; 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 (三)本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程,其含盖范围很广,既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学,又涉及许多交叉学科,如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学(包括语言学理论与外语教学),以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中,词汇学与语言学关系最为密切,词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读(三)、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系,这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴,日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究,这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标

英语语言学概论精选试题学生版

《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断

27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology

Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined,organized,and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes,phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义: ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子,即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions(情况): 1)the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2)the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3)the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy(满足)the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution,complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布,互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1)contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on

英语语言学概论复习

《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则:第一,理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二,以 各章的题目为统领,理解各章节下的具体内容。第三,动手书写和记忆重要内容,部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization

英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx

第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 (1)语言具有系统性(systematic) (2)语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 (3)语言符号的任意性(arbitrariness)与理据性(motivation) (4)口头性 (5)语言是人类特有的 (6)语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈(phatic communion)马林诺夫斯基提出的,认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外,还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用,叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类(Genetic Classification) 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系(family)——语族(group)——语支(branch)——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类(Typological Classifacation) 根据词的结构类型,可分为 (1)孤立语(isolating language)又叫词根语,一个词代表一个意思,缺少形态变化,语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 (2)粘着语(agglutinative language)简单词组成复合词,而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 (3)屈折语(inflectional language)词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 (4)多式综合语(polysynthesis language)把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词,但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型,可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能(metafunction) 1.6什么是语言学(linguistics)

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示 第一章语言的性质 语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性);语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为);语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说)等。 第二章语言学 语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观);语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为);普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义);;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学)等。 第三章语音学 发音器官的英文名称;英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。 第四章音位学 音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调)等. 第五章词法学 词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生);词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干)等。 第六章词汇学 词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。第七章句法 句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格);一致;短语,从句,句子扩展等。 第八章语义学 语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用);里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义);句子语义关系。 第九章语言变化 语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化); 第十章语言、思维与文化 语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。 第十一章语用学 语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为);合作原 320240*********

英语语言学概论复习考试

《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章) 2013-6-1 Chapter I Introduction2012 I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure. F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history. T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an

英语语言学概论--整理汇编

Chapter 1 Language语言 1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language. 3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. 4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention. 5. discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct. 6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users. 7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure. 8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance. 9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. 1. ★What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language. First, language is a system. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense. The third feature of language is symbolic nature. 2. ★What are the design features of language? Language has seven design features as following: 1) Productivity. 2) Discreteness. 3) Displacement 4) Arbitrariness. 5) Cultural transmission 6) Duality of structure. 7) Interchangeability. 3. Why do we say language is a system? Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other. 4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language? I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language: 1) Instrumental function. 工具功能 2) Regulatory function. 调节功能 3) Representational function. 表现功能 4) Interactional function. 互动功能 5) Personal function. 自指性功能 6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h] 7) Imaginative function. 想象功能 II. A dult language has three functional components as following: 1) Interpersonal components. 人际 2) Ideational components.概念 3) Textual components.语篇

英语语言学概论-简答题

1.Synchronic vs diachronic Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 2. Langue and parole Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation. 3. Competence and performance Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. 4. Arbitrariness As mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions. 5. Productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time. 6. Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. 7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop. 8. Cultural transmission While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription: Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose. 10. Sense and reference Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience. 11. Context It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of

相关文档
最新文档