中国高等教育国家化的策略与实践(英文)

Policy and Practice of the Internationalization of Higher Education in China Futao Huang

Directly motivated by the open-door policy,economic reforms and challenges from

globalization and worldwide competition,as well as efforts to realize massification

of higher education since 1978,the internationalization of higher education in China

has experienced a change from activities concerning traditional outflows of interna-

tional scholars,faculty members,and students before 1992to those relatingto trans-

national higher education and internationalization of curricula.During the process,

academic patterns from Europe,Asia,and the Pacific region as well as from America

have significantly affected Chinese higher education.Internationalization has never

been a one-way process;rather it comprises attempts to realize mutual communica-

tion or exchange,largely oriented and regulated by the government.The problem of

increasingoutflow of personnel abroad,the “brain drain,”as well as the ability to

benefit from transnational education while also maintaininga national character

remain key issues for the future.

Keywords:internationalization of higher education;China;since 1978;mobility of

scholars and students;internationalization of university curricula;

transnational education

Internationalization of higher education is not a totally newstory in China.

As early as the latter half of the 19th century,when China became a semi-

colonial country,it established its modern higher education system by adopting

foreign academic patterns,notably from Western models such as Germany,

France,and the United Kingdom as well as Japan.In 1952,the Soviet communist

model was introduced into the People’s Republic of China and dominated

China’s higher education development almost until the end of the 1970s.Since

1978,with the implementation of the open-door policy and economic reform,

China has once again sought Western models and made various attempts to inter-

nationalize its higher education.Following a brief introduction on policies,this

225

Journal of Studies in International Education , V ol. 7 No. 3, Fall 2003225-240

DOI:10.1177/1028315303254430

? 2003 Association for Studies in International Education

226Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 article will focus on the progress and issues of internationalization of higher education in China.

CHANGES OF POLICY

During the past20years,the policy concerning internationalization of higher education has changed progressively,and its development can be roughly divided into two phases.

The First Phase: 1978 to 1992

From1978to1992,government policies and regulations mainly dealt with issues such as dispatching students,scholars,and members of faculties abroad for advanced studies,invitation of foreign scholars and experts to China,and the practice of teaching and learning foreign languages,especially English.These reflected the urgent demand for professionals and experts with a good mastery of advanced knowledge and technology from overseas and a desire for learning from English-speaking countries,partially as a result of China’s isolation from the Western world for more than20years since the Korean War.

In August1978,the Ministry of Education(MOE)—which was renamed the State Education Commission(SEC)in1985and then again the MOE in1998—issued the first important document on a government program for dispatching more Chinese undergraduates and graduates abroad.The document defined the principles,requirements,and selection methods.Those who were selected and dispatched abroad were strongly advised to study in the fields of science,engi-neering,agriculture,and medicine(MOE,1978).To train more manpower at a higher level for the national economy,3years later,the first policy for privately financed study overseas was promulgated by the MOE in1981.Thus,from this time,policies for sending scholars and students abroad fell into the following two categories:one dealing with scholars,members of faculties for advanced study,and students dispatched and financed totally by the government and the other relating to private students.

After1984,various attempts were made to delegate more authority and responsibilities for dispatching scholars and students abroad to other agencies in the central government,provincial governments,and institutions.In1986, according to a document from the SEC,a newmethod of selecting visiting schol-ars and faculty members for advanced study was to be https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,ly,instead of being selected,sent,and financed only by the SEC,other agencies in the cen-tral government,and provincial governments as well as individual universities could also be authorized to choose and dispatch candidates to go abroad.As a result,from the middle of the1980s,publicly financed scholars or faculty mem-

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education227 bers and students going abroad were divided into two categories consisting of those selected and financed by the SEC and those chosen and supported by other agencies,local governments,and institutions(SEC,1986).

Besides the policy concerning the dispatch of scholars or faculty members and students abroad,during the period,there were also issued policies for invita-tion of foreign professors and experts,introduction and translation of foreign university textbooks,and encouragement of the return of those overseas Chinese scholars and students.A document by the MOE indicated that at that time,major efforts should be devoted to conducting English-language education(MOE, 1979).It was emphasized that it was urgent to introduce those newer and bet-ter foreign textbooks from the United States,Japan,West Germany,the United Kingdom,France,and other countries as quickly as possible in the immediate future,obviously indicating that China had turned to seek Western and Japanese academic patterns instead of those of the Soviet Union.

The Second Phase: 1993 to the Present

From1993,with increasing outflows of Chinese scholars,faculty members, and students abroad,more attention has been paid to such problems as howto encourage those Chinese scholars and students overseas to return,howto attract more foreign students to study in China,and howto undertake transnational education and internationalization of university curricula.

The importance of a document issued by the SEC in1995cannot be overesti-mated because it approved and encouraged the cooperation and joint operation of Chinese higher education institutions with foreign institutional partners.It clearly stated that cooperation with foreign higher education institutions should become an important component in China’s education policy and should consti-tute a supplementary part of China’s educational program(SEC,1995).Another important factor that stimulated the progress of transnational education in China was the speech by the current Minister of Education,Ms.Chen.In the speech, Minister Chen stressed that it was imperative to open China’s education to the world more widely and more actively and to pioneer access to the international educational market by such measures as attracting more foreign students to come to China and exerting Chinese traditional cultural influence abroad after China became a member country of the World Trade Organization(Z.Chen, 2002).

IMPLEMENTATION AND PROGRESS

As higher education institutions in China,including a very fewin the private sector(called Minban in Chinese,meaning nongovernmental sector without any

228Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 public allocation largely depending on tuition and fees)that appeared from the middle of the1980s,were directly administrated and supervised by the MOE and other agencies in the central government as well as by local governments at vari-ous levels,the implementation of and progress made in internationalization of higher education has been deeply affected by the policies previously mentioned and has responded rapidly to the changes in policy.

Movement of Visiting Scholars,

Faculty Members, and Students Abroad

Before1981,those going abroad for studies were basically categorized into three types,namely,visiting scholars,faculty members for advanced studies, and university students with an intent of pursuing Ph.D.or master’s degrees.At the time,almost all of them were selected and financed totally by the MOE,other agencies in the central government,or provincial governments.Those selected and financed by the MOE accounted for the biggest group.For example,from 1978to1986,the total number of all those being dispatched abroad was esti-mated to be31,000;those financed by the MOE amounted to27,000,constitut-ing more than90%of the total(China Education Yearbook,1985,1986,1987). However,by the end of1989,encouraged by the changes of policy,the number of faculty members and students financed by other agencies,provincial govern-ments,and universities had increased to43,000,whereas the number of persons financed by the SEC was about30,000(China Education Yearbook,1990).

Almost from the time of issue by the Chinese government in1981of the first document that permitted students to go abroad at their own expense,the number of private students going abroad has rapidly continued to grow.Especially since 1993,as the policy concerning private students abroad became more and more supportive and encouraging,private students going abroad have become a main-stream and their number has constituted the largest share of the total number of students studying abroad.From1978to1999,it is estimated that the total num-ber of private students going abroad reached160,000;within this total,the number of private students from1978to1989constituted only23,000,indi-cating that the numbers of private students increased rapidly in the1990s(China Education Yearbook,2000;Miao,2001).Moreover,the related data for1999 also showsimilarly that w hereas2,661persons financed by the MOE and3,204 financed by other agencies,provincial governments,and institutions went abroad,the number of private students was17,884,amounting to75%of the total number of23,749studying overseas(China Education Yearbook,2000) Likewise,there have also been great changes in percentages of different cate-gories of personnel studying abroad since1978.With the increase in the number

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education229

Figure 1.Changes in the Number of Different Categories From 1979 to 1987 Source:China Education Y earbook,People’s Education Press,1982to1984,1987.Beijing.With author’s modifications.

of visiting scholars and faculty members for advanced studies,the number of students and,especially,the number of undergraduates studying abroad has reduced continuously(see Figure1).

As for the areas in which overseas students are involved,as mentioned pre-viously,study in practical and professional fields such as natural science and engineering was encouraged from the very start in1978.In the1980s,another document by the SEC even indicted that the proportion in applied fields to basic fields should be8to2,that the proportion of social science to natural science should be2to8,and that within the social sciences and humanities,areas such as economics,management,law,finance,politics,and trade should be given prior-ity(Dongchang,1998a).By the end of1985,the proportion of overseas students engaged in engineering and science reached43.8%and31.3%,respectively;the remaining quarter was concentrated in agriculture,medicine,humanities,social sciences,and management(Dongchang,1986).Some investigations on Chinese scholars and students in NewYork,Boston,California,and so forth w ere made in1994(see Table1),and the report published by the Chinese Embassy in Can-ada based on their interviews with Chinese scholars and students in major Cana-dian universities(see Table2)has also shown similar results.

By1986,the countries in which overseas students from China stayed num-bered76,among which45%of those students stayed in the United States,30%in Western and Northern Europe,10%in Canada and Australia,9%in Japan,and 3%in other areas(Dongchang,1998b).By the end of2000,the range widened, with scholars or students from China having studied in103countries and regions of the world.It is of interest that the number of students going to Australia increased by30%almost every year during the past5years(see http://www. https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,/news/)and has surpassed the number going to European countries

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education231

Figure 2.Number of Foreign Students in China

Source:Achievement of Education in China,Statistics1980to1990,People’s Education Press,Beijing, 1986,1991,p.50,46.

such as France and Germany and to Japan.By2001,the percentage of Chinese scholars and students studying in the United States grewto10.9%of the total number of international scholars and students there,not only being larger than the number of students from any other country or region(open doors)but also constituting a greater proportion of those going abroad than from countries such as the United Kingdom,Australia,Canada,Germany,France,and Japan(Tan, 2002).

Meanwhile,since the1980s,China has also made a great effort in attracting foreign students to come to China(see Figure2).As shown in Figure2,although the number of foreign students in China declined continuously for about2years from1988(probably due to the student movement in China at that time and“the Tiananmen Square event”in1989),significant growth resumed in1990.Since then,the number has continued to rise.According to the data,in2000alone,the number of foreign students in China totaled44,711,coming from164countries, among which students from Asia constituted71.38%,students from Europe 12.57%,students from America11.04%,and students from Africa3.10%.Num-bers of students from Japan,Korea,the United States,Indonesia,and Germany ranked notably higher than those from other https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,pared with the fact that more than80%of foreign students were studying Chinese language in the 1980s,more and more foreign students in China have come more recently to study in fields including medicine,engineering,and science(China Education Yearbook,2002).

Furthermore,different from those who only concentrated their short training courses or programs in Chinese language or medicine since the1990s,by2001, nearly half of the foreign students in China have begun to study for degrees(see https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,/specail/newspapers/2002/01/).

232Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 Birth and Progress of Transnational

Higher Education Institutions

All foreign universities or those financed by foreign religious bodies and gov-ernments in China were abolished in the beginning of the1950s.Until the middle of the1980s,foreign universities or organizations were strictly forbidden to recruit any students in China;they also could not conduct any form of transna-tional higher education.From the middle of the1980s,transnational education (Zhongwai Hezuo Banxue in Chinese,meaning cooperation between China and foreign countries in operation or management of higher education institutions) came into being in China.By1989,there were only two universities in China that officially undertook cooperation with foreign universities.The first one was the Johns Hopkins–Nanjing University Center for Chinese and American Studies, which was set up in September1986and financed by both Chinese and American governments.The other was the Goethe Institute,Beijing,an outcome of cooper-ation between Beijing University of Foreign Studies and the Goethe Institute in Germany that conducted German-language training for Chinese faculty mem-bers and students and introduced aspects of German culture.Subsequently,great progress has been made but only after two important documents had been issued by the SEC in1993and1995.

Currently,two types of transnational higher education institutions can be identified,namely,those granted authority to offer degrees and those only per-mitted to confer diplomas and certificates.The former type refers to those insti-tutions that have been approved by the Degree-Granting Committee of the State Council and authorized to award foreign degrees in China.From1995to1999, there were about22universities in China that were in cooperation with institu-tions in the United States,Australia,France,Norway,Singapore,and Thailand in areas of study such as transportation and circulation management(bache-lor’s),international economics,mass media and communication(bachelor’s), business administration(master’s degree),manufacturing,industrial engineer-ing(master’s degree),law(master’s degree),and advanced nursing(master’s degree).Some degrees are directly conferred by the foreign institutions, whereas others award Chinese degrees.The latter group includes those institu-tions that are mainly engaged in training activities for venture companies in China:Most of them arise from cooperation with and/or finance from foreign enterprises in China(Fuzeng,Bo,&Xiaoyu,2001).Major study fields offered in these institutions are international finance,international accounting,comput-ing,marketing,secretarial studies,fashion design,commercial English,practi-cal English,and so forth,characterized with a strong emphasis on utilitarian needs(Guozheng,1998).

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education233 By1999,more than70higher education institutions were granted qualifica-tions to undertake some kind of transnational education in China with foreign partners.Among these were about30programs delivered by27higher education institutions in China in cooperation with25foreign counterparts in the United States,the United Kingdom,Australia,France,the Netherlands,Norway,Thai-land,and two universities in Hong Kong.They were approved by the MOE for the award of foreign degrees,mostly related to study fields concerning manage-ment such as business administration,public administration,enterprise manage-ment,commerce,and trade management:Nearly half of the programs are those relating to the master’s in business administration(Wei,1999).

With the development of cooperation with foreign partners,great efforts have also been made since the1990s by some leading Chinese higher education insti-tutions to export their education service abroad.At present,two types of institu-tions have come into being outside of China:those responsible for teaching Chi-nese language and those engaged in teaching Chinese medicine.In the former category,Chinese lecturers usually move to a local partner in the foreign coun-try based on a mutual agreement.After studying in their home country by using textbooks imported from China for6months or1year,the local students are expected to come to the partner institutions in China for further study before being awarded degrees or certificates by the Chinese institution.Such transna-tional education activities mostly take place in countries such as Japan,Korea, and other Southeast Asian countries,which used to be greatly influenced by Chinese culture.For example,Fudan University of China and Singapore National University have agreed to establish branch campuses in their respective universities and to undertake cooperation with each other in recruiting students and in mutually recognizing some curricula,credits,diplomas,and degrees(see http://www/https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,).In the second category,concerning Chinese medicine, curricula and teaching are delivered in the local students’own countries by Chinese professors sent from China with the help of their local partners.When local students have completed their studies,a Chinese certificate or even a de-gree can be conferred.Geographically,unlike the Chinese language institutions, Chinese medical institutions are not only established in Asia but also can be found in some Western countries such as Germany,the United Kingdom,and Spain(Fuzeng et al.,2001).

Internationalization of

University Curricula

Transnational education has also given a rise to the internationalization of university curricula and textbooks in China,especially during the past decade.

234Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 Although the MOE already planned to translate or introduce some textbooks and references in some major study fields from the famous Western universities as early as1979,little progress had been made in this aspect.Only after1992were remarkable achievements accomplished through great efforts by the SEC/MOE and institutions.

Generally speaking,they can be divided into two types.The first is by import of original university textbooks.From2000,encouraged and organized by the MOE,the most recent original English textbooks in20subject areas,which deal with information science and techniques,were imported and introduced into Chinese university campuses(Tan,2001).A similar effort was also undertaken at the institutional level.For example,in2002,about10of the most famous uni-versities in China decided to buy and use almost all of the textbooks nowbeing used in Harvard University,Stanford University,and MIT.The list of materials includes not only books,tapes,and compact disks concerning natural science, engineering,and medicine but also those related to law,trade,management,and some humanities(Luo,2002).What is important is that in contrast to what had been done before the1990s,all these textbooks will be used directly for teaching in English or bilingually in university classrooms without being translated into Chinese or modified.The second group also places more emphasis on teaching in English or through bilingual instruction.With increased import of original textbooks in English and China’s participation in the World Trade Organization, more and more higher education institutions in China have begun to make use of English-language or bilingual instruction(in most cases,referring to Chinese and English)in university teaching and research activities.In2001,a document issued by the MOE indicates that in the coming3years,from5%to10%of all the curricula in the leading universities must be taught in English,especially in such areas as biology,information science,newmaterials,international trade,and law(Liu,2001).In fact,such practices have not only been applied in those lead-ing universities or limited to the level of graduate education,but they are also to be implemented in some provincial universities at the undergraduate level.For example,it is nowstated in a document by the MOE that from2002,from5%to 10%of undergraduate teaching should be conducted in Chinese and English, through possible usage of English textbooks in the coming five years(F.Chen, 2002).

RATIONALES AND MOTIVATIONS

Compared with those political or ideological factors that promoted academic or educational exchanges with the Soviet Union,other socialist countries,and some developing countries in Asia and Africa during the Cold War,like many Asian countries and regions(Knight&de Wit,1997),the internationalization of

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education235 higher education in China during more recent years has been closely correlated with a combination of socioeconomic changes in conjunction with worldwide trends.However,during this period,the balance between these factors has varied over time and modified the motivations for internationalization of Chinese higher education.

During the period from1978to1992,the internationalization of higher edu-cation from1978to1992was directly motivated by a desire for realizing“the four modernizations”(the modernizations of industry,agriculture,and defense as well as science and technology)through implementation of economic reforms.We may see from the changes in policy in the first section that initially, the internationalization of higher education happened almost simultaneously with the implementation of the open-door policy in China.Almost all of the higher education institutions were closed or abolished during the cultural revo-lution from1966to1976,so a requirement for training experts and high-level professionals was met by sending Chinese students and scholars abroad and was financed by the government.Selection and dispatch overseas of in-service teach-ers and university students with almost total support from the public budget became a major part of the internationalization of higher education before the1990s.The guiding principle at that time was clearly described by then-chairman Xiaoping as follows:“There must be a correct open policy in realizing the four modernizations.We basically depend on our own efforts,resources and foundation,but it is impossible to realize the four modernizations without any international cooperation”(Xiaoping,1994,p.91).In particular,during this period,almost all the policies and practices relating to internationalization of higher education were decided in the context of the effort to realize the four mod-ernizations,achieve economic reforms,and solve the problem of a shortage of highly educated personnel.

After1992,China further initiated deeper economic reforms and facilitated the pace of the transition to a market economy with Chinese characteristics. Market mechanisms and a conception of competition with a global perspective were rapidly introduced into the development of China’s higher education.Since then,internationalization of higher education in China has come to be motivated by many more and diverse factors.In comparison with driving forces prior to the 1990s,these can be grouped into two important categories.

Take up challenges from globalization and participate in the worldwide competi-tion in the academic field.In particular,strong driving forces promoting internation-alization of higher education in China are derived from the need to improve academic standards and enhance the quality of education and research in light of those inter-national standards nowachieved in the advanced Western countries.The challenges of economic globalization and membership in the World Trade Organization have

236Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 provided direct motivation for internationalization since the middle of the1990s. Importing transnational higher education services from abroad and establishing higher education institutions and joint programs in cooperation with foreign partners are regarded as practical and very efficient ways to meet these challenges.

Realize massification of higher education in China by encouraging growth of transnational higher education since the middle of the1990s.In comparison with many countries,higher education in China is still in an“elite”phase.According to government statistics,even up to the year of2000,the gross enrolment in higher edu-cation institutions amounted to no more than11%of the cohort aged18to21 (Zhihua,2001).As China’s economy rapidly expanded through the1990s and con-tinues to grow,increasing demand for higher education and the inability of the lim-ited number of higher education institutions to meet this demand has become a more and more serious issue.One of the measures taken by the Chinese government to expand the supply of educated human capital and to satisfy the growing demand for higher education is to encourage more and more students and scholars to study abroad and to stimulate development of transnational higher education.

As a result,in addition to the central government,which still greatly encour-ages internationalization of higher education as a matter of policy,the influences of such international organizations as the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization;the World Bank;the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development;and the World Trade Organization have come to play an increasingly important role in the internationalization of higher educa-tion in China.

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

As in most developing countries,when China implemented its policy for sending and encouraging personnel abroad,the problem of the brain drain has long been a big issue.Many efforts have been made by the government since the 1980s to deal with this,and there seem to be some indications that those studying abroad are gradually coming back.During the period from1978to2001,only about130,000overseas Chinese scholars and students had returned(Shen, 2001):About250,000of them remained abroad,including those sent and financed by the government and other public sectors.Among those,many of them are very well qualified professional experts with advanced knowledge and high capacities urgently required by China’s economy.The issue of reducing the outflowof Chinese scholars and students overseas through sound and reasonable policy and measures has become more and more serious for the government.It amounts to howbest to attract the skilled personnel so as to be able to use their resources for China’s economic,cultural,academic,and political development.

Huang/InternationalizingHig her Education237 It constitutes an element of emergent policy that will largely affect the future pat-tern of movement of Chinese scholars and students overseas.

Another important problem needing consideration is that of quality assurance and control of those activities concerning transnational education.Tremendous progress has been made in quality assurance since https://www.360docs.net/doc/0110145278.html,pared with such countries as Japan,Korea,Australia,and even Hong Kong in the East Asia and Pacific regions(McBurnie&Ziguras,2001),the present regulations and documents relating to transnational education in China seem more restrictive and rigid in terms of requirements and procedures,for example,refusing to allowa foreigner to be president of an institution,insisting on a majority of Chinese members on a board or governing body,limiting delivery of teaching concerning humanities and some social science subjects,and forbidding teach-ing concerning religious doctrines.Simply speaking,the ability to benefit from transnational education while also maintaining a national identity and character remains a key issue to be considered and dealt with by the government.As a result,it might be assumed that if there is no statement of policy or legislation that can clearly define the role of transnational education in the Chinese higher education system,there will probably be no sound or rapid development to assure its quality as well as protect stakeholders’interests while guaranteeing and maintaining the nation’s interests.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The internationalization of higher education in China during the past decades has been characterized with an emphasis on different aspects in accordance with its different phases.In brief,since1978,the internationalization of higher edu-cation in China has experienced a change from activities concerning traditional outflows of international scholars and students to those of practice relating to transnational higher education and internationalization of curricula due to the progress of globalization.

As for rationales for internationalization of higher education in China,ini-tially,it was greatly affected by the economic reform for the realization of“the four modernizations”and almost directly dominated by the central government, so during the period from1978to1992,the internationalization can be regarded as driven more by economic factors and regulated by the government.However, since the1990s,it has been heavily market oriented and promoted more by chal-lenges from globalization and worldwide competition as well as by a require-ment for marching into a“mass”phase of higher education.Especially since the middle of the1990s,more emphasis has been placed on undertaking trans-national higher education and introducing foreign curricula and textbooks to

238Journal of Studies in International Education Fall2003 improve academic standards and enhance the quality of education and research according to international standards.

Regarding the direction toward which the internationalization of higher edu-cation is proceeding,although the American model has exerted a great and steady influence on the internationalization of higher education in China from the very start,many other academic patterns from the United Kingdom,Ger-many,France,Norway,Australia,and Japan have also significantly affected Chinese higher education.It might be estimated that various,diversifying for-eign models,especially foreign models from the European Union member countries and the Asia Pacific region,will affect internationalization of higher education in China more as China further facilitates economic development and is involved more with regional and world affairs as well as with global competition.

Although some changes have gradually happened in its role and function in recent years,with more and increasing influences from foreign models,regula-tion and orientation by the government have never been diminished.In compari-son with the United States and most European countries,Australia,and Japan, national character and identity have always been strongly maintained and pro-tected through government legislation.

Last,it should be pointed out that except for a very limited period from1978 to the beginning of the1980s,internationalization of higher education in China has never been a one-way process but rather has been full of attempts to realize mutual communication and exchange.The various measures that have been taken to attract more foreign students to China,exert Chinese cultural and aca-demic influences through a cross-border delivery,move Chinese academic staff members to foreign universities as lecturers,and establish offshore campuses not only in Asian regions but also in some European countries and even the United States constitute important components of internationalization of higher education in China.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Futao Huang received a Ph.D.in1995from the Institute of Higher Education at

Xiamen University in China.From1997to1999,Huang was an associate profes-

sor at the institute.From1999to2001,Huang was a postdoctoral researcher at the

Research Institute for Higher Education at Hiroshima University in Japan.Huang

is currently an associate professor at the Research Institute for Higher Education

in Hiroshima.Huang’s major research fields include internationalization of higher

education from a comparative perspective,especially focusing on China,Japan,

Korea,and Australia;reforms of higher education in modern China;and reforms

and development of curricula in universities in China and Japan.