英语写作重点

?Part Four The Paragraph A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself

and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay.

I.Definition & Fundamental Functions of a Paragraph

A paragraph usually consists of three kinds of sentences that develop the writer’s ideas, feelings about the subject. They are: topic sentence, supporting sentence and concluding sentence.

II. Effective Paragraph

? 1. Basic Elements of a Paragraph

? 2. Unity and Controlling Idea

? 3. Coherence .There are several ways to gain coherence: (3 ways)

?1) Coherence through logical arrangement

?2) Coherence through cohesive devices. (1) Transitional words and phrases . (2)

Repetition of key terms.(3) Substitution(4) Repetition of structure

?3) Coherence is also achieved through consistency in point of view and in tone

?4）transition

?III. Pre-Writing Steps There are some pre-writing steps for students to follow in

improving their paragraph writing.

? 1. Choosing a Topic 2. Narrowing a Topic 3. Outlining Your Ideas

? A simple outline for a short paragraph might look like this:

?Topic Sentence; Supporting points (A,B,C,D……); (Concluding Sentence).

? 3 types of outlines, the topic outline, the sentence outline, and the mental outline.

IV. Topic Sentence

? A topic sentence is the sentence that states the subject that the paragraph will develop. A

good topic sentence has the following features:

?1) It is a complete sentence; that is, it should contain a subject and a verb.

?2) It is usually a statement, not a question.

?3) It is the most general statement in the paragraph. It does not give any specific

details

?4) It has two parts: the topic and the controlling idea. The topic refers to the subject of

the paragraph, and the controlling idea is a word or phrase that the reader can ask questions about: How? Why? In what ways? What does that mean?

WAYS OF DEVELOPING A PARAGRAPH

I. Chronological Order. 按时间展开II. Development by Process 步骤发展

III. Development by Spatial Order. 空间

IV IV. By Example & Generalization概括This way of developing a paragraph:

1. listing; The following rules are constructive in using the skill of listing :

1) The topic sentence must be an argument or an attitude with simplest, and clearest

wording.

2) The supporting details are introduced by listing different aspects of the topic sentence.

The supporting details may be arranged according to their degree of importance, sequence of time, displacement, etc.

2. exemplifying and

3. generalization.( from general to specific,

V.By comparison & contrast.类比和对比

Comparison shows similarities between persons, places, things, ideas, or situations.

Contrast does just the opposite. There are two basic methods for organizing comparison

or contrast:1 alternating comparison or contrast. 2.block comparison or contrast one of the special way of comparison is called analogy,

VI. By cause & effect. 原因和结果

There are two ways of developing a paragraph by cause and effect: cause before effect and effect before cause.

NOTES:

1. When discussing causes and / or effects, be certain that your analysis is logical, be

careful not to mistake coincidence for the cause-and-effect relationship.

2. Try to control your prejudices in your causal reasoning.

3. Avoid oversimplification in writing a causal analysis paragraph.

4. Limit your essay to a discussion of the most immediate, most important factors.

5. Arrange the discussion of causes or effects in a certain way according to your own

preference,

VI.Classification 分类

Major categories of classification: 1) Based on normal criteria.条件，标准

2) Based on different functions of, usually, one item.

3) Based on characteristics shared by certain groups.

Rules to follow when writing in classification. A successful classification should

1) follow a logical method;、

2) have a ruling principle, that is to say, base your writing on some certain criterion

for similarities or differences. 3) be relatively complete; 4) not overlap.

VIII. By definition 定义

The skill of definition is used when a word needs to be explained, clarified or interpreted. IX. By combination of methods

Part 5 The Whole Composition

I. Effective Whole Composition 1. Unity. 2. Order. 3. Proportion

II. Steps in Writing a Composition

? 1. Prewriting. 1) Assignments 2) Establishing Boundaries 3) From Subject to Topic 4) Collect Materials 5) Formulating a Thesis 6) Make an Outline. There are different types of outlines:①The Scratch Outline②The Paragraph Outline③The Topic Outline④The Sentence Ou ?Rules for writing outlines: ①Avoid single subdivision ②Avoid mixing types

?③Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank.

?④Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative

? 2. Arrangement. Normally English essays can be classified into 4 types according to different purpose of writing: narration, exposition, argumentation and description, ?1).The Introduction Here are several methods you can employ.

?(1) You can begin your essay with a direct movement to your thesis

?(2) You can introduce an essay with a definition of a relevant term or concept

?(3) You can begin with a question (4) You can begin an essay with a quotation.

?(5) Finally, you can begin your essay with an anecdote or story

?2) Body paragraphs. Conclusion You can connect one body paragraph with the next one in three ways.

?a) You can link two paragraphs by adding a transition signal in each of the topic sentences.

?b) You can repeat some of the old information from the preceding topic sentence in the next topic sentence before you discuss the new idea.

?c) The concluding sentences in body paragraphs are sometimes optional, but the use of a concluding sentence can either help to summarize that paragraph or function as a bridge to the following body paragraph.

?3) Conclusion. The conclusion, has two parts: a summary, and a memorable statement.

?Your memorable statement may take several forms:

?a) Prediction b) Suggestion c) Solution d) Personal opinion e) Thought-provoking quotation f) Thought-provoking question g) Judgment

?When you write the conclusion of the essay, try to avoid the following errors:

?1) Do not jump from the summary to the memorable statement.

?2) Do not introduce any new ideas in the conclusion because this is the end of your essay.

?3) Do not change your attitude.

? 3.wtritng and revision. The following list can be used as a checklist when you write.

?Make sure you understand your assignment. Establish the boundaries of your subject.

?Move from subject to topic. Brainstorm to generate ideas. Formulate a thesis.

Types of writing:

I. Description A paragraph that describes is called a descriptive paragraph. In such a

paragraph you can give a description of a person, place or object. a descriptive paragraph needs sharp, colorful, and sensory details that help your reader to see, hear, touch, smell, and taste what you describe.

Classification of Description.1) Description of a person. In describing a person, the writer should not merely give details of his appearance. He should try to reveal the person’s character, thoughts, and feelings,

2) Description of a place. organize since all places whether large (town, city or

country ),or small (park, river bank, garden, square, forest, etc. ) are distinctive in layout,

3) Description of an object. To describe an object we have to depend on our senses,

because we need to mention its size, shape, color, texture(质地), taste, and smell.

4) Description of a scene. It usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the

people, and the actions

II. Narration. 1. as a pattern of thought, consists of the act of following a sequence of actions or events in time. It is a recounting of the facts or particulars of some incident or experience which one can recall either as a spectator or as a participant.

2. Kinds of narration. In its broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or

imaginary, biographies, histories, news items and narrative poems.

3. Five aspects should be considered when we plan a narrative: context. Selection of

details. Organization. Point of view. And purpose.

4. Six factors to write a narrative. when , where, who, what, why, and how.

记叙文是以叙述为基本方法来记人、叙事. 以记人为主的记叙文，人物作为主要记叙的对象。叙述就是把事件发生、发展过程和人物的经历、事迹等介绍出来。以记事为主的叙述文，事件的发生、发展和结果是叙述的主要对象。

5. How to Begin a Narrative

At the beginning of a narrative, the writer should tell when and where the event happened, the people concerned, and the mutual relation between persons. In addition, the factors

which lead to the future change and development should be included in order to help the readers to understand the event.

6. How to develop a narrative

A narrative can be developed in three ways:

1). according to the order of one’s activities which happe ned one after another;

2). the developing process of events; 3). the importance of one’s characters,

7. How to End a Narrative

记叙文的结尾不像说明文和论说文的结尾那样复杂.叙事的文章通常是依照事件的发生\发展和结局这样一个自然的顺序来结尾.无须在结构上及方法上有特殊的要求.

在记人的文章中,作者通常是有感而发,因为没有人会在平平淡淡\毫无印象的人物身上浪费笔墨.所以在此类文章结尾时,作者时常发表感慨,陈述自己对某人的观点或态度.当然在有些”难忘的某事”之类的文章中,最后用作者的一些议论来结尾.

8. Summary of Narration: Narration gives an account of an event or a series of events.

Narrative writing is a story telling.

Note: Before writing activities

1). Asking questions2) Revision Checklist3) Reader-Writer Response (From Reading)

III. Exposition. Exposition is to explain or explore something. the exposition mainly deals with relationships as well as processes.

IV. Argumentation.Argumentation, unlike the purpose of exposition, aims to inform, the purpose of argumentation is to convince.

My Volkswagen is well built.

1. 开头段(Introductory Paragraph)

2. 结尾段(Concluding Paragraph)

3. 展开段---立论(Developing Paragraph)

4. 展开段——驳论(Developing Paragraph)

5. 英语立论文与驳论文的写作异同