The difference between English and Chinese translation
The difference between English and Chinese translation English and Chinese belong to two different language families: English, the Indo-European family and Chinese, the Sino-Tibetan family. The two languages also have different cultural backgrounds. Translation is an interlingual and intercultural transfer and multi-dimensional contrastive studies of the two language and cultures are therefore essential. Therefore, before translation, we should pay attention to the cultural elements.
According to the difference between English and Chinese translation, there are ten pairs of features which we should take into consideration when we translate English to Chinese.
1 Synthetic and Analytic (综合语和分析语)
A synthetic language is characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships.
An analytic language is marked by a relatively frequent use of function words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms.
Modern English has become a analytic language, but Chinese is a typical analytic language.
Inflection(变化词形), word order（安排词序）and the use of function words(运用虚词) are employed as the three grammatical devices in building English sentences.
1.1 Inflectional vs. Non---inflectional
In English, nouns, pronouns and verbs are inflected. Such grammatical meaning as parts of speech, gender, case, person, tense, aspect, voice, mood and non--finite verb, can bta,expressed by the use of inflected forms with or without the help of function words and word order, whereas in Chinese this is generally not true: the above grammatical meanings are mostly implied in contexts or between the lines, though often with the help of word order and function words,
e.g They told me that by the end of the year they would have been working together for thirty years. 他们告诉我，到（那年）年底，他们在一起工作就有三十年了。
1.2 Words Order: Flexible vs. Inflexible
Word order in English is not so rigid as in Chinese. More ways of inversion grammatical or rhetorical, are often seen in English.
e.g Interrogative inversion(疑问倒装)
（1）What in the world do you mean? 你的意思究竟是什么啊？
（2）Exclamatory inversion (惊叹倒装)
What a beautiful voice you have! 你有多么好的嗓音啊！
The flexible word order in English is mainly the result of the grammatical concord of words in the sentence which is achieved by inflection. When expressing temporal or logical sequences, English may make full use of inflections and function words to make its word order flexible, while Chinese, with the help of function words ,arranges its word order according to certain rules of temporal or logical sequences：Category two contains only four items, and 2 I shall say no more about them except that,3 since they are under consideration,4 we should not let the grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as possible, to arrive at a common understanding in the interest of humanity，按照汉语的思维习惯重新排序，组成三个句子，顺序为1-3-5-4-2 （.为了人类的利益，我们应该不失时机，力图尽快达成共识。除此之外，别的我就不多说了。）1.3 The Use of Function Words：English and Chinese Make Use of Different Types of Function Words.
English function words include the article, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, coordinators and subordinators. While Chinese function words include particles, connectives and prepositions. Each has its own features in the use of these words.
e.g They are students of our school. 他们是本校的部分学生。
They are the students of our school.他们是本校的全体学生。
Chinese is rich in particles ,such as aspect particles (动态助词：着，了，过)，structural particles (结构助词：的，地，得)and emotional particles (语气助词，呢，吗，吧）e.g 这回我可亲眼看见啦！（感叹语气）
This time I’ ve actually seen it for myself.
English has a large number of prepositions and prepositional phrases which are often in use, while Chinese has a few prepositions which are mostly “borrowed” from their corresponding verbs.
e.g: Peter drew his knife on the robber. 彼得拔刀向那个强盗坎去。
Who ,whom ,whose, that ,what ,which ,when ,where, why and how, there are conjunctive and relative pronouns are used as coordinating and subordinating in English ,this phenomenon is rare in Chinese.
e.g. Practically all substance expand when headed and contract when
cooled. 几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。
1.4 Intonation vs. Tone
The above three grammatical devices, inflection, word order, and the use of function words, have much to do with the role of phonetic features in the two language.
English is an intonation language while Chinese is a tone language.
2 Rigid vs. Supple (刚性与柔性)
English sentence structure is composed of none phrase(s) and verb phrase(s). It has become an invariable custom to have a subject before a verb , and therefore a sentence does not contain a subject and a verb is felt to be incomplete. The subject(s) must agree with the predicate verb (V) in person and number, etc. This rigid S—V concord forms the kernel of sentence .with the predicate verb controlling other main members. English sentences, however long and complicated, can be reduced to five basic patterns: SV, SVP, SVO, SV oO, SVOC.
English sentence can be summarized as these five patterns or their variants(变式), expansion(扩展), omission, combination (组合) , or inversion.
English subject-predicate structure appears rigid as a result of certain grammatical bonds, including the patternization and the principles of grammatical and notional concord.
Chinese however, is relatively free from the government of S—V concord and formal markers. The subject—predicate structure is unusually varied, flexible and therefore complicated and supple.
The subject of a Chinese sentence is varied, often optional:
文章翻译完了。（受事主语）
This article has been translated.
累得我站不起来了。（无主句）
I’m so exhausted that I can’t stand up.
The predicate of a Chinese sentence is also varied and complicated:
e.g 1 天高云淡。（形容词作谓语）The sky is high and the clouds are pale.
2 他出国留学去了。（连动式谓语）He has gone aboard for further studies .
In addition, there are quite a few “illogical” expressions in Chinese :
晒衣服：to bask in the sun 恢复疲劳：to get refreshed
晒太阳：to sun one’s clothes 恢复健康：to recover one’s health More ambiguity can be found in Chinese due to the lack of connectives, inflections and other grammatical markers:
1 他欠你的钱（他+欠你钱/ 他欠你的+钱）
2 热爱人民的总理（热爱+人民的总理/热爱人民的+总理）
In addition, the suppleness of the Chinese language also manifests itself in the “run--on” sentences, which is composed of the “full sentence” and the “minor sentence”.
3. Hypotactic VS Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotactic is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives. Parataxis is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them.
To clarify the relations between words phrases or clauses, English more often resorts to overt cohesion（显性接应）frequently using various cohesive ties such as relatives, connectives, prepositions, and some others.
e.g When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes, of which one goes much deeper than the other.
By the contrast, Chinese more frequently relies on convert coherence and context, focusing on temporal or logical sequences. Chinese more often resorts to word order, contracted sentence, four-character expressions, and some grammatical or rhetorical devices such as repletion, antithesis, and parallelism. Compare English with Chinese:人（若）不犯我，我（则）不犯人。We will not attack unless we are attacked.
聪明一世，糊涂一时。（对偶）Smart as a rule, but this time a fool.
4 Complex Vs. Simplex( 繁复与简短)
With plenty of subordinate clauses and phrases, English has comparatively longer and more complicated sentences than Chinese. English sentence-building is characterized by an “architecture style”(楼房建筑法)with extensive use of longer or subordinate structures, while Chinese, a “chronicle style”(流水记事法)with frequent use of shorter or composite structures. Therefore, English sentences are often complex while Chinese sentences are often simplex.
e.g In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of all sizes and colors. 门口放着一堆雨伞，少说也有十二把，五颜六色，大小不一。
(cf. 门口放着至少十二把五颜六色，大小不一的雨伞。)
5 Impersonal VS. Personal (物称与人称)
English often goes with an impersonal style, in order to hide writer and reader and some features of impersonal are passives, begin with it and abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use a personal style, which is featured by much more actives in form but passives in sense, personal subjects, or subjectless and subject-omitted sentences when the subject is self evident, unknown or implied in the context.
1．An idea suddenly struck me. 我突然想到了一个主意。
2．Alarm began to take entire possession of him. 他开始变得惊恐万状。
6 Passive Vs. Active (被动与主动)
(1)Passives of various forms are frequently used in English mainly due to the
following reasons: (1) when the agent of an action is self-evident or unknown, it is unnecessary or impossible to mention the agent. (2) Syntactic factors: for cohesion, balance and focuses, and weight.( 3) Rhetorical factors: for variation(.4) Stylistic factors: more passive in informal writing ,notably in the objective, non-personal style of scientific articles, news items, and government communication.
By contrast, Chinese often use active forms including those in passive sense. e. There are some reasons for the limited use of the Chinese passive forms.
Instead, Chinese generally prefer to use active forms; beside there are many other ways to denote passive sense which is usually expressed in the English passive form.
1)Notional passives: 这锅饭能吃十个人。(不说“这锅饭能被十个人吃”) A pot of rice like this can feed 10 people.
2）Subjectless or subject-omitted sentences
为什么总把这些麻烦事推给我？Why should all the unpleasant jobs be pushed onto me ?
3) Using generic persons(通称或泛称)
人们普遍认为…….. It is generally considered that…….
7. Static Vs. Dynamic (静态与动态)
English makes more use of nouns, adjective and preposition, and is therefore more static. Conversely, Chinese often employs verbs, and therefore more dynamic.
1 The doctor’s extremely quick arrival and uncommonly careful examination of the patient brought about his very speedy recovery.
医生迅速到达，并非常仔细地检查了病人，因此病人很快就康复了。
The conversion of the English nominal style into the Chinese verbal, e.g. English nouns converted into Chinese verbs, adjectives into adverbs, etc., is often employed in translation e.g He is a good eater and sleeper. 他能吃能睡。
He has someone behind him. 有人给他撑腰。
8 Abstract Vs. Concrete （抽象与具体）
In English, nominalization often results in abstraction. The method of abstract diction is found in frequent use of abstract nouns. By contrast, Chinese prefers to use concrete or specific words and employs a “down—to—earth style” expressing abstract ideas often by metaphors, similes, allegories, or other device for making a thing plain.
e.g I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain. 雨无情地下个不停，我感到惊异。
We also use Conversion of English abstract words into Chinese concrete words, figurative expressions or verbs. e.g
He had surfaced with less visbility in the policy decisions. 在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。
9. Indirect VS. Direct (间接与直接)
The wider use of such device as euphemism, understatement, litotes, indirect negation, periphrasis as well as the impersonal style and abstract makes English more indirect than Chinese.
9.1 Euphemism(委婉)
Compared with Chinese, English euphemism is widely use in all kinds of subjects,
e.g sanitary engineer( = garbage man)清洁工2. meat technologist(=butcher) 屠户
9.2 Understatement（克制陈述）
A statement which is not strong enough to express the full or true facts or feelings, i.e. makes big thing seem trifle, particularly common in English, is known as understatement. For example, an Englishman will say “I have a little house in country. ” Finally, you will find that the little house is a place with 300 bedrooms. 9.3Litotes
Litotes is a way of expressing a thought by its opposite, in Chinese there are many litotes, such as “未尝不可”，“难免错误”“无不遗憾”
e.g To my no small astonishment, I found the house on fire.
我发现房子着火了，这使我大吃一惊。
9.4Indirect Negation（间接否定）
A strange feature of the syntax of subordination in colloquial English is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate that-clause where semantically it belongs to the main clause. e.g. “I do not think he will come.” instead of “I think he will not come”. But in Chinese we often say that“我想他不会来”instead of “我不想他来”.
Other ways of using affirmative forms to express negative meanings are often found in implied subjunctive, disjunctive questions, ellipsis, swearword, and ironical idioms.
e.g You could have come at a better time. 你来得不是时候。
9.5Tactful Implication(婉转暗示)
English speakers are often careful not to case offence or upset people in their expression, which leave gaps in the development of thoughts.
e.g. It can be worse.还可以。凑合吧。You are late for the last time.你被解雇了。
9.6Periphrasis
Periphrasis or circumlocution is the roundabout expression in speaking or writing, i.e. the use of long or many words, phrases, or unclear expression when short simple ones are all that is needed. While Chinese generally prefers to be straightforward.
e.g In London there reighs a complete absence of really reliable news.(=There is no reliable news in London.) 伦敦没有可靠的消息。
By contrast with English, Chinese has less indirect modes of expression as the above, but other means such as polite expressions and self-depreciatory expression are often used. 贵姓your name 拜访call on
令尊your father 奉告inform
贱姓李，请问尊客贵姓？
I’m Li, Could I have your name?
10S ubstitutive Vs. Repetitive (替换与重复)
Repetition of words in English is generally more or less abnormal and objectionable except that it is rhetorical or significant. To avoid repetition, English generally employs substitution, ellipsis, variation, and some other devices.
10.1 Substitution(替代)
English often uses pro—forms or substitution to avoid repetition. While Chinese often repeat the same words or clause substituted.
e.g Translation from English into Chinese is not so easy as that (=translation)from English into French.(名词性代替) 英译汉不如英译法容易。
10.2Ellipsis（省略）
English usually leaves out the same words from sentences to avoid repetition. While Chinese often repeats the same words.
e.g Ambition is the mother of destruction as well as of evil.
野心不仅是罪恶的根源，也是毁灭的根源。
10.3Variation（变换）
English often uses synonyms or near—synonyms, super ordinates, hyponyms or general words to avoid repetition, while Chinese prefers repeats the same word.
John has bought a new Ford. He practically lives in the car.
约翰给自己买了一部新的福特牌汽车。他几乎就住在这部汽车里。
Chinese, however, is more tolerant of repetition. Reiterative devices such as reduplication, antithesis and parallelism are often used in Chinese.
10.4 Reduplication(重叠)
Chinese often employs various patterns of character-reduplication for rhetorical or other purpose, while English has much less this kind of device.
路上挤满了男男女女，他们熙熙攘攘正在买卖各种东西。The road was packed with
a noisy crowd of men and women, who were selling and buying all kinds of things.
10.5 Repetition（重复）
Compared with English repetition that is generally rhetorical, Chinese repetition of word or meaning is rhetorical or grammatical, and it is much more frequent.
沉默呵，沉默呵！不在沉默中爆发，就在沉默中灭亡。
Silence, silence！Unless we burst out , we shall perish in this silence.
10.6 Antithesis and Parallelism（对偶与排比）
Chinese antithesis consists of two balanced structures that are matched in sound and sense; parallelism use three or more parallel phrases or sentences of relevant meaning and similar structures. In writing and speaking ,these two rhetorical devices are much more used in Chinese than in English.
人多力量大，柴多火焰高。
There is strength in number: more logs make a bigger fire.
Given above are ten pairs of major features of English and Chinese, mainly involving the differences in grammar, rhetoric and modes of expression. From that has beeen given above one will come to realize that the comparison has much to do with the following techniques of translation:
Conversion in English-Chinese Translation
Conversion of parts of speech in English-Chinese translation generally takes the following forms.
1.Converting into verbs
One of the most remarkable differences between English and Chinese syntax is the use of the verb. It's taken for granted that an English sentence contains no more than one predicate verb, while in Chinese it's not unusual to have clusters of verbs in a simple sentence.
2.Converting into nouns
Nouns account for an overwhelming part of the vocabulary both in Chinese and in English. Conversion between nouns and other parts of speech is also frequently adopted in English-Chinese translation.
3.Converting into adjectives
Some other parts of speech in English can be converted into Chinese adjectives to smooth the translation.
4.Converting into adverbs
Sometimes, for the sake of convenience, some parts of speech in English may be converted into Chinese adverbs.
5.The conversion of sentence elements
"conversion" in a broader sense includes the change of various elments of a sentence. It may also involve the change of the voices, i.e. From the "active voice" into the "passive", and vice versa.
Addition in English-Chinese translation
1.Putting in words omitted in the original
Matter can be changed into energy, and energy into matter.
物质可以转化为能量，能量也能转化为物质。
2.Putting in necessary connectives
Heated, water will change into vapor.
水如受热，就会汽化。
3.Putting in words to convey the concept of plurality
He stretched his legs which were scattered with scars.
他伸出双腿，露出腿上的道道伤痕。
4.Putting in word to indicate different tenses or sequences
We won't retreat; we never have and never will.
我们不会后退，我们从未后退过，将来也决不后退。
5.Addition by logical analysis
Air pressure decreases with altitude.
气压随海拔高度的增加而下降。
6.Addition for the purpose of rhetoric or coherence
This printer is indeed cheap and fine.
这部打印机真是价廉物美。
Omission in English-Chinese translation
Generally speaking, omission in English-Chinese translation is used to achieve the effect of succinctness, especially in the cases of English pronouns and functional words such as the article, the preposition, the conjunction.
1.Omitting the pronoun
Pronoun are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. Therefore, when translated into Chinese, many English pronouns may be omitted so as to conform the rendering to the accustomed usage of Chinese expression.
2.Omitting the article
the article is the hallmark of English nouns. When translated into Chinese, it is usually omitted except when the indefinite article is intended to indicate the numeral "one", or "a certain".
3.Omitting the preposition
Chinese is characterized by its succinctness and the preposition appears less frequently in Chinese than in English, and therefore omission of prepositions is a common practice in English-Chinese translation.
4.Omitting the conjunction
Chinese is considered an analytic language and many conjunctions that are indispensable in English may seem redundant in Chinese.
5.Omitting the verb
As Chinese is a language of parataxis, it's grammar is not so strict as that of English, and predicative verbs in Ehinese sometimes may also be omitted.
6.Omitting the impersonal pronoun "it"
This often occurs when "it" stands for time, weather, distance, or formal subject∕object of a sentence.
Repetition in English-Chinese translation
1 Repetition of nouns
The People’s Daily guides, educates and encourages the masses.《人民日报》指导群众，教育群众，鼓舞群众。（重复作宾语的名词）
2.Repetition of verbs
He declared that for himself he was still for the Charter, details, name, and all.
他声称他本人仍然拥护宪章，拥它的细则，拥护它的名称，拥护它的一切。3．Repetition of pronouns
Our basic unit of electrical charge is that of electron. 电荷的基本单位是电子的单位。
ⅡFor emphasis
Any my poor fool is hanged. No, no, no life.我那可怜的小傻瓜绞死了，没命了，没命了，没命了！
A Repetition of beginning word
Time is, time was, but time shall be no more!时间现在在，时间过去在，但时间将一去不复返。
B Repetition of ending word
Sow nothing, reap nothing. 不劳不获。
C Repetition of both beginning and ending words
Nothing can come of nothing. 没有只能换到没有。
（1）Repetition by the same word
This town is a small town, looking much like other towns of its size, be few towns enjoy so many natural advantages.这个城市是个小城市，看上去大小跟别的城市没什么两样，但是别的城市却很少享有这么多的天然优势。
（2）Repetition by the synonyms
They wore their best clothes and all their jewelry. 他们穿上最漂亮的衣服，带上所有的珠宝首饰。
Inversion in English-Chinese translation
According to some linguists, the English possesses nine types of inversion so far as grammatical relations are concerned . When translated into Chinese, none of the inversion order remains unchanged, as shown in the following examples:
(1)interrogative inversion
What did you do yesterday?
你昨天干什么来着？
(2)Imperative inversion
"speak you", said Mr. Black, "speak you, good fellow!"
布莱克先生叫道：“说，说吧！伙计！”
(3)Exclamatory inversion
How dreadful this place is!
这地方好可怕啊！
(4)Hypothetical inversion
Had you come yesterday, you could have seen him here.
要是你昨天来了，你就会在这里看见他的。
(5)Balance inversion
Through a gap came an elaborately described ray.
从一个空洞透出一束精心描绘的光线。
(6)Link inversion
On this depends the whole argument.
整个争论都以此为论据。
(7)Signpost inversion
By strategy is meant something wider.
这里用“战略”一词，其含义较广。
(8)Negative inversion
Not a word did he say.
他只字未说。
(9)Metrical inversion
As the pants hart for cooling streams. (normal order: as the hart pants for cooling streams.)
像公鹿渴望清凉的小溪一样。
Negation in English-Chinese translation
English negative words and expressions fall into the following categories;
(1)Full negatives: no, not, none, never, nothing, nobody, nowhere, neither, nor;
(2)Semi negatives: hardly, scarcely, seldom, barely, few, little, ect;
(3)Partial negatives: not every, not all, not both, not much, not many, not always, etc;
(4)Words with negative implication: fail, without, beyond, until, unless, lest, ignorant, refrain, refuse, neglect, absence, instead of, other than, except, rather than, etc.
In most cases, this negative expressions can be translated literally, but in some circumstances, they should be readjusted according to different context.
1.Affirmative in English, but negative in Chinese
Such cases are found in a wide range of scope: words of different parts of speech, various phrases, or sentence structures.
He denied it to be the case. (v.) 他说事实不是这样。
2.Negative in english, but affirmative in Chinese
This case is just opposite to the previous one.
The doubt was still unresolved after his repeated explanation. (adj.)
经他一再解释，疑团仍然存在。
3.Same English word, either affirmative or negative equivalents in Chinese
I am new to the work. 这工作我是生手。∕这工作我不熟悉。
4.Double negative for emphasis
Double negative in English, as in Chinese, is used for emphasis. In this case we may either drop both the negative words or keep to the original, depending on which version is idiomatic in Chinese.
There is no rule that has no exception.
任何工作都无不例外。
5.Roundabout affirmative
This is an indirect way of expressing a strong affirmative, and when translated into Chinese, the emotion of the original should be properly kept.
He didn't half like the girl.
他非常喜欢那姑娘。
6.Some traps in negative structures
Now and then some negative structures with an elusive idea can hardly be rendered into Chinese literally. This is where we are liable to stumble into translation traps. Division in English-Chinese translation
Sometimes, an English sentence with a restrictive attributive clause is too long or too complicated for the translator to take as a single sentence. In this case, we may divide it into two or several parts, placing the attributive clause after the principal clause to confirm to the Chinese usage, repeating the antecedent being modified.
They are striving for the ideal which is close to the heart of every Chinese and for which , in the past, many Chinese have laid down their lives.
他们正在为实现一个理想而努力，这个理想是每个中国人所珍爱的，在过去，许多中国人为了这个理想而牺牲了自己的生命。
Sometimes, however, we may translate a restrictive attributive clause without repeating the antecedent.
He managed to raise a crop of 200 miracle tomatoes that weighed up to two pounds each.
他种出了200个大得惊人的西红柿，每个重达两磅
Condensation in English-Chinese translation
Condensation of Phrases and Clauses (压缩短语或从句)
In the course of the same year, war broke out in that area.同年，该地区爆发了战争。Condensation of Complex Sentences into Simple Sentences(把复合句压缩成简单句) Mercury expands as it gets hotter and contracts as it cools. 水银会热胀冷缩。Translation of the passive
The following are usual methods of translating English sentences in the passive voice.
1.Converting the passive voice into the active
2.Converting the passive voice into a subjectless sentence
Omission of the subject is one of the typical features of Chinese syntax. Therefore, in the practice of English-Chinese translation, we may translate the passive voice into a Chinese subjectless sentence.
3.Keeping the passive structure unchanged
Sometimes, we may keep the passive voice unchanged, especially when it comes to something unpleasant.
4.replacing the passive voice with other means
In some cases, however, the passive voice in English cannot be rendered into good Chinese by any of the above means. Therefore, it is up to the translator to adjust or remold the whole structure, trying to find a readable and smooth Chinese version. Translation of long sentences
The translation of the long sentence is perhaps the most difficult of all in the process
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高中生精彩英语演讲稿大全三分钟 对于演讲稿来说，一些学生会在英语课堂上演讲，那幺有哪些励志的英文演讲稿呢?小编为大家整理了一些精彩的演讲稿范文。 ? ?三分钟英语励志演讲稿英文： ?We Are The World ,We Are The Future ?Someone said “we are reading the first verse of the first chapter of a ?book, whose pages are infinite”. I don’t know who wrote these words, but I’ve ?always liked them as a reminder that the future can be anything we want it to ?be. We are all in the position of the farmers. If we plant a good seed ,we reap ?a good harvest. If we plant nothing at all, we harvest nothing at all. ?We are young. “How to spend the youth?” It is a meaningful question. To ?answer it, first I have to ask “what do you understand by the word youth?” Youth is not a time of life, it’s a state of mind. It’s not a matter of rosy cheeks, ?red lips or supple knees. It’s the matter of the will. It’s the freshness of the ?deep spring of life. ?A poet said “To see a world in a grain of sand, and a heaven in a wild ?flower, hold infinity in the palm of your hand, and eternity in an hour. Several ?days ago, I had a chance to listen to a lecture. I learnt a lot there. I’d like ?to share it with all of you. Let’s show our right palms. We can see three lines that show how our love.career and life is. I have a short line of life. What ?about yours? I wondered whether we could see our future in this way. Well,