胡壮麟-语言学教程-复习及答案

胡壮麟语言学复习及答案

Chapter I Introduction

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.

3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.

4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.

5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.

6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.

7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.

8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.

9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.

10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.

11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.

12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.

13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.

14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.

15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.

16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.

17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.

18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.

19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.

20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. Chom sky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ o f the rules of his language.

https://www.360docs.net/doc/588790916.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.

23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.

24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.

25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.

26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.

27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.

29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.

30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.

A. prescriptive

B. analytic

C. descriptive

D. linguistic

32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?

A. Arbitrariness

B. Displacement

C. Duality

D. Meaningfulness

33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.

A. primary

B. correct

C. secondary

D. stable

34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.

A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing

B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue

D. All of the above

35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.

A. synchronic

B. diachronic

C. prescriptive

D. comparative

36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.

A. sociological…psychological

B. psychological…sociological

C. applied… pragmatic

D. semantic and linguistic

37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.

A. parole

B. performance

C. langue

D. Language

38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.

A. sense

B. sounds

C. objects

D. ideas

39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,

A. displacement

B. duality

C. flexibility

D. cultural transmission

40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.

A. learning

B. teaching

C. books

D. both A and B

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F

11.T 12.T 13.T 14.T 15.T 16.F 17.T 18.F 19.F 20.F

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. knowledge 22. abstract 23. Duality 24. arbitrary

25. syntax 26.genetic 27. Parole 28. applied 29. productive

30. scientific (or systematic)

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.

3l.C 32.D 33.C 34.D 35.B 36.A 37.C 38.B 39.A 40.D

IV. Define the following terms:

41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.

46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.

48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.

57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,

58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.

59. langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?

Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.

65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?

First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.

Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes

Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.

66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?

The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.

67. How do you understand competence and performance?

American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. 68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?

Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a

mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. Chapter 2：Phonology

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.

2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.

3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.

4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.

5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.

6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.

7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.

8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.

9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.

10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.

11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.

12. V owel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.

13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.

14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.

15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.

16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.

17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.

18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form

a phonemic contrast.

19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.

20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds. 22．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.

23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.

24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.

25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.

26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.

27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.

28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.

29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.

30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.

31．P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.

32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.

33． T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. 34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.

III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.

A. mouth

B. lips

C. tongue

D. vocal cords

36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.

A. voiceless

B. voiced

C. vowel

D. consonantal

37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.

A. /z/

B. /d/

C. /k/

D./b/

38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.

A. identical

B. same

C. exactly alike

D. similar

39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.

A. in phonemic contrast

B. in complementary distribution

C. the allophones

D. minimal pair

40．The sound /f/ is _________________.

A. voiced palatal affricate

B. voiced alveolar stop

C. voiceless velar fricative

D. voiceless labiodental fricative

41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.

A. back

B. central

C. front

D. middle

42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.

A. phonetic components

B. immediate constituents

C. suprasegmental features

D. semantic features

43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

A. phone

B. sound

C. allophone

D. phoneme

44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.

A. phones

B. sounds

C. phonemes

D. allophones

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F

11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T 20. T

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25. place

26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation

31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentence

III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D 44.D

IV. Define the terms below:

45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?

1) V owels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.

2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.

3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.

4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.

59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?

They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?

A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.

Chapter 3：Morphology

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.

3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.

4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.

5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.

6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.

7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.

9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.

10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.

13. B______ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d____ affixes.

15. D______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.

16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.

17. C______ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.

18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m____ rules.

19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d____ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.

20. A s____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.

A. bound morpheme

B. bound form

C. inflectional morpheme

D. free morpheme

22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound ______.

A. is the sum total of the meaning of its components

B. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemes

C. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.

D. None of the above.

23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of _______.

A. the first element

B. the second element

C. either the first or the second element

D. both the first and the second elements.

24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

A. Free morphemes

B. Bound morphemes

C. Bound words

D. Words

25. _____ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

A. Syntax

B.Grammar

C. Morphology

D. Morpheme

26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.

A. lexical

B. morphemic

C. grammatical

D. semantic

27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.

A. have to be used independently

B. can not be combined with other morphemes

C. can either be free or bound

D. have to be combined with other morphemes.

28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

A. Prefixes

B. Suffixes

C. Roots

D. Affixes

29. _____ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.

A. Words

B. Morphemes

C. Phonemes

D. Sentences

30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.

A. a derivative affix

B. a stem

C. an inflectional affix

D. a root

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T

II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:

11. Morpheme 12. grammatical 13. Bound 14. derivative 15.Derivative

16. suffix 17. Compounding 18. morphological 19. derivation 20. stem III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. B 30. C

IV. Define the following terms:

31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

Chapter 4：Syntax

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.

2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.

3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.

4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.

5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.

6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.

7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.

8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.

9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.

10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.

11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.

12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.

13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.

14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.

16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.

18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.

19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.

21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.

23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.

III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.

A. right

B. wrong

C. grammatical

D. ungrammatical

26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.

A. coordinator

B. particle

C. preposition

D. subordinator

27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.

A. recursive

B. grammatical

C. social

D. functional

28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________

A. how words and phrases form sentences.

B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of words

C. how people produce and recognize possible sentences

D. All of the above.

29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________.

A. transformational rules

B. generative rules

C. phrase structure rules

D. x-bar theory

30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________.

A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.

B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase

C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions

D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.

31. The sentence structure is ________.

A. only linear

B. Only hierarchical

C. complex

D. both linear and hierarchical

32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.

A. large

B. small

C. finite

D. infinite

33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences

A. lexical

B. morphological

C. linguistic

D. combinational

34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.

A. Generative

B. Transformational

C. X-bar

D. Phrase structure

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case

III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A

31. D 32. C 33. D 34. B

IV. Define the following terms:

41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.

42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.

Chapter 5 Semantics

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.

2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.

4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.

5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.

6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.

7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.

8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.

9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.

10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.

12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.

13. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.

15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.

16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.

17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.

18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.

19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.

20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.

A. Plato

B. Bloomfield

C. Geoffrey Leech

D. Firth

22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.

A. the conceptualist view

B. contexutalism

C. the naming theory

D.behaviourism

23. Which of the following is not true?

A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.

C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.

D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.

24. “Can I borrow your bike?” _______ “ You have a bike.”

A. is synonymous with

B. is inconsistent with

C. entails

D. presupposes

25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

A. Predication analysis

B. Componential analysis

C. Phonemic analysis

D. Grammatical analysis

26. “alive” and “dead” are ______________.

A. gradable antonyms

B. relational opposites

C. complementary antonyms

D. None of the above

27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

A. Reference

B. Concept

C. Semantics

D. Sense

28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form.

A. Polysemy

B. Synonymy

C. Homonymy

D. Hyponymy

29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.

A. homonyms

B. polysemy

C. hyponyms

D. synonyms

30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.

A. grammatical rules

B. selectional restrictions

C. semantic rules

D. semantic features

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:

l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T

II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:

11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming

III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:

2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A

V. Answer the following questions:

48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components?

The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example;

(A) The dog bit the man.

(B) The man bit the dog.

If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanings.

As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mean-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical m eanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog” and “the man” in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntagmatically to another.

49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples.

Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man” is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE]

38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situ-ation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:

47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?

Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of mean-ing . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonol-ogy. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:

You have left the door wide open.

The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.

The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully per-formed .

52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?

The maxim of quantity

1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .

2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

2. The maxim of quality

1. Do not say what you believe to be false.

2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

2. The maxim of relation

Be relevant.

The maxim of manner

1. Avoid obscurity of expression.

2. Avoid ambiguity.

3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .

4. Be orderly.

53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?

A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?

B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.

This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implica-ture as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.

A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?

B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.

This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying some-thing that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of qual-ity. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.

A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?

B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?

This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.

A: Shall we get something for the kids?

B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.

This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pro-nouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.