认知过程

What is Cognitive Processes
? Cognition (mental activity)
第九章 认知过程
周晓林 北京大学脑科学与认知科学中心 北京大学心理学系 xz104@https://www.360docs.net/doc/63856718.html,
– involves the acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge
? Cognitive Psychology
– a synonym for the word cognition – OR a particular theoretical approach to psychology
? Cognitive Approach
– a theoretical orientation that emphasizes mental structure and processes
Cognition plays a central role in
? Social Psychology
– the study of social cognition
研究认知
图9.1认知心 理学的领域
认知心理学家研 究高级心理功能, 特别着重于研究 人们如何获得知 识并利用它形成 和理解自己的生 活经验。
? Developmental Psychology
– the study of cognitive and social development
? Clinical Psychology
– the study and implementation of cognitive therapy
? Educational Psychology
– the study of cognition in the classroom
? Cognitive Neuroscience
– the study of the cognitive processes related to brain functioning
? And practically every other area of psychology.
Aspects of Cognition (1)
? Perception
– how does the human mind perceive what the senses receive – how does the human mind distinctively achieve the perception of forms and patterns – does the perception of human faces have a special mechanism
Figure or Ground?
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Aspects of Cognition (2)
? Attention and Consciousness
– what are the basic processes of the mind that govern how information enters our minds, our awareness, and our high-level processes of information processing
Asymmetries in Visual Search
Aspects of Cognition (3)
Encoding Storage Retrieval
? Memory
– how are different kinds of information represented in the memory – how do we move information into memory, keep it there, and retrieve it from memory when needed – how do we mentally represent information in our mind – how do we manipulate and operate on knowledge
Refers to the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory
The maintenance of material saved in the memory system
Material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used
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Types of Memory Prospective Retrospective
LTM
STM
Implicit Priming Conditioning Generation Skills Semantic
Explicit Episodic
Verification
Recogntion
Recall
Aspects of Cognition (4)
? Imagery
– whether mental images truly resemble perceptual images – how do we form and use cognitive maps for physical settings
Aspects of Cognition (5)
? Language Processing
– how do we derive and produce meaning through language – how do we acquire language – how does our use of language interact with our ways of thinking – how does our social world interact with our use of language
Can Animals Speak?
signing chimps, discerning parrots, & grammatical bonobos
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What are characteristics of language?
汉语句子
? 汉语句子结构有许多不同与印欧语言的特 性
Structured
Arbitrary
Generative
Dynamic
? 独特现象：
–吃米饭、吃食堂、吃父母 –我差点死了 vs. 我差点没死 –他把头发梳理了一下 vs.他把名画欣赏了一下 （X）
Aspects of Cognition (6)
? Problem Solving and Creativity
– how do we solve problems – what processes aid and impede use in reaching solutions to problems – why are some of use more creative than others – how do we become and remain creative
Tower of London
? Match start configuration to the goal configuration in the minimum number of moves ? Constraints – the three bins hold three balls, two balls and one ball, respectively – can move only the top-most balls to a different bin
Kohler: Problem Solving as Insight
? Kohler (1925) investigated problem solving in apes
Weisberg and Alba (1981) ? an insight problem called the nine-dot problem-must connect all the dots with one continuous line
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Aspects of Cognition (7)
? Reasoning and Decision Making
– how do we reach important decisions – how do we draw reasonable conclusions from the information we have available – why and how do we often making inappropriate decisions and reach inaccurate conclusions
? Jim is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. ? Is Jim more likely to be a classics professor at an university or a truck driver?
Why Study Cognitive Psychology (1)
? Cognition occupies a major portion of the study of human psychology ? Cognitive approach has widespread influence on other areas of psychology ? Cognitive psychology has also influenced interdisciplinary areas ? Cognitive psychology is related to your own personal life
Why Study Cognitive Psychology (2)
? The study of cognition has become essential not only for those interested in Cognitive Science in general, and Cognitive Psychology in particular, but for almost all those with an interest in the MIND.
The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (1)
? Linguistics ? Noam Chomsky
– the creative potential of language defies behaviorist notion that we learn language by reinforcement – language understanding is constrained not so much by what have heard, but by an innate language acquisition device (LAD) – it is the structure of the mind, rather than the structure of environmental contingencies, that guides language acquisition
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The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (2)
The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (3)
? Computer and Communication Sciences
– Following many issues faced in computer information processing, psychologists began to talk about information codes, about limitation in processing capacity, and about the processing either serially or in parallel – Artificial Intelligence
? to construct systems that show intelligence, and particularly, the intelligent processing of information
? Information-processing Approach
– a mental process can best be understood by comparing it with the operation of a computer – a mental process can be interpreted as information processing through the system in a serious of stages, from stimuli to responses – a number of simple mental operations can be grouped together to produce complex cognitive behavior
The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology (4)
认知科学的领域
? The Born of Cognitive Psychology in 1956 (11 September)
– a symposium at MIT – many books and articles on a variety of mental processes were then published
? Ulric Neisser
– Cognitive Psychology (1967)
Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology (1)
Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology (2)
? Cognitive Science – includes psychology, philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, artificial intelligence, and neuroscience – tries to answer questions about the mind. – examines the nature of knowledge, its components, its development, and its use.
? Cognitive Neuroscience
– examines how the structure and function of the brain explain cognitive processes – began to flourish at the end of 1980s, when cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists began to use brain-imaging techniques to record brain activity during cognitive tasks – it is a challenge to build explanatory bridge between the level of the neuron and the level of cognitive concept
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Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (1) ? The cognitive processes are active, rather than passive ? The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate ? The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information ? The cognitive processes are interrelated with one other; they do not operate in isolation
Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (2) ? Many cognitive process rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing
– bottom-up processing stresses the importance of information from the stimuli – top-down processing stresses the influence of concepts, expectations, and memory upon the cognitive processes
Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (3) ? ? ? ? ? Nature vs. nurture Rationalism vs. empiricism Structures vs. processes Domain generality vs. domain specificity Validity of causal inferences vs. ecological validity ? Applied vs. basic research ? Biological vs. behavioral methods
心理过程和心理资源
唐德斯 “减法”(或 “加法”）原则： 额外的心理步骤将花 费更多时间 确定是平行过程 还是系列过程并 不很容易做到。
本章概要
⊙ 语言使用、语言认知 ⊙ 视觉认知 ⊙ 问题解决和推理 ⊙ 判断和决策
2 语言使用
你如何向你的朋友描 述这两幅图片？如果 你的朋友是盲人，你 的描述会怎样变化？
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What is Language ?
? language: a set of symbols and principles for the combination of these signs, which allow for communication and comprehension ? grammar: the operative rules for combining units at each language level:
? at the level of sound, ? or of words, ? or of sentences
Psycholinguists investigate:
? the processes by which we comprehend and produce spoken or written language; ? the representations of linguistic input and output created by these processes; ? the knowledge we must have to perform these processes; ? how linguistic knowledge and language processes develop in the child
汉字
? 表意书写系统的基本单位 ? 大部分为形声字（形旁＋声旁）
法？
汹、煌、琳、涞
汉字阅读中的亚词汇加工
与基线条件相比时的启动效应
启动（priming）类型
语义相关 形声字 基线条件
目标字
Priming Effects (msec)
25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 SOA57 SOA100 Semantic SOA200
青－紫 语义启动效应
青 猜 波
? 加工整字时，把 声旁分解出来， 平行加工整字和 声旁 ? 汉字声旁加工不 仅激活其对应的 语音，也激活其 对应的语义 ? 反驳了把汉字加 工等同于拼音词 汇加工的观点
紫
猜－紫 声旁启动效应
? 实验任务：尽可能快地读出目标字 ? 测量指标：对目标字的反应时（RT） Zhou & Marslen-Wilson (1999, JEP）
Complex
Zhou and Marslen-Wilson (1999, JEP: LMC)
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（1）语言生成
（1）语言生成
Very complicated transformation take place during speaking
? A conceptual representation is a network of neurons that fire with a complex associative correlational pattern ? This conceptual-semantic pattern is transformed into a hierarchical syntactic pattern ? This pattern is transformed into a serial speech pattern ? All these have to be done fluently, in real time.
Stages in Speech Production
? ? ? ? Conceptualising, Formulating, Articulating, Monitoring
Single Word Production
? 而词汇产生或词形式的编码是语言产生 研究的中心问题之一。这一过程可细分 为五个组成部分（Levelt，1999），
– 概念准备（conceptual preparation） – 词条选择（lexical selection） – 音位编码（phonological encoding) – 语音编码（phonetic encoding) – 发声（articulation）
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概念准备（conceptual preparation）
? 概念准备是指大脑把思想、观点等转化成概念的 过程，这也是言语产生的最初环节。 ? 人在准备表达某个思想时，需要从相关的大量信 息中挑选最恰当的词汇概念（lexical concept）， 这个概念必须对应心理词典中的词或词素。比如 在表达“有四条腿、嗅觉灵敏、会汪汪叫的动物” 时，最简洁的概念是“狗”，但特定的语言环境下， 根据描述角度的不同，也可以选择“犬”、“动物”甚 至“畜生”等概念。 ? 概念准备的灵活性依赖于个人已有的相关知识和 具体的书面或口头环境。
Conceptual Knowledge in the Brain?
词汇化（lexicalization）
? 词汇化（lexicalization）和词条选择在概念 准备完成后发生。 ? 准备好的概念将会激活心理词典中对应的语 义表征（如表达“狗”的语义特征），词汇化把 激活的语义表征转换成词的音位表征。 ? 一般认为，在词义与音位表征之间有一层抽 象的表征，称为特定词汇表征（lemma，或 称词条），这 一表征涵盖了 该词的语法特 征。
Phonological Encoding
? 词汇化包含两个阶段
? 第一阶段为语义表征的激活传播到中间 层的特定词汇表征上，即多个lemma被 概念输入激活，经过一段时间后，激活 最高的lemma被选择，lemma的激活将 词汇的语法特性提供给句子的语法编 码，供其使用；
Phonological Encoding
? 第二阶段是语音形式（lexeme或phonological form）通 达，即中间层的激活进一步传输到特定词汇的语音表征 上，使得说话者能够提取词汇的语音。 ? 受到激活或提取的音位表征将进一步进行词法—音位编 码（morpho-phonological encoding）。
– 在这一阶段，单词的词汇结构、韵律特征和音段组成被展 开，词素单位内的音位信息被组合成音节。 – 一般认为，音节化（syllabification）是一个从左到右、按 时间先后顺序逐步加工的过程，它把已获得的音位信息组 合成符合实际发音情况的音节。 – 词的音段信息和韵律结构（如CV结构、轻重音）是分别 提取的。 音位片段将以从左到右的方法插入抽象的韵律结 构中，结合成词的音节.
Phonetic Encoding
? 在语音编码和发声之间，还有音节发声程序的 提取（Levelt & Wheeldon，1994）。
– 一种语言经常使用的音节的抽象发声程序被存 储在一个“仓库”中，这些音节程序发声时将从左 到右依次被提取。 – 激活这些程序也归因于语音编码的激活传播。 音节发声程序一旦被提取，一个词的发声就立 即开始。 – 发声系统计算出执行抽象音节发声程序的最佳 方案，指挥呼吸系统和咽喉系统发出声音。
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（1）语言生成
Speech Errors
? Shifts- “She decide_ to hits it.”
– “She decides to hit it.”
? Exchange- “Your model renosed.”
– “Your nose remodeled.”
? Perseveration- “He pulled a pantrum.”
– “He pulled a tantrum.”
? Blend- “To explain clarefully.”
– “To explain clearly/carefully.”
Slips of the Tongue
? Whole word substitutions
– When one word is substituted for another, it is of the same word class. – The substitution tends to be either semantically-based or form-based. – Verbs are much less likely than nouns et al. to undergo semantic substitution
More Speech Errors
? Word exchange
– Can you put the desk back on my book when you’ve finished with it? – this spring has a seat in it – I must let the house out of the cat
? Morpheme exchange
– there aren’t many weeks in the day – He has already trunked two packs – The umbrella with a guy you saw
? Semantically based
– Must you leave? It’s still so late. – All I want is something for my shoulders [intended: elbows]
Form-based Word Substitution
? Sometimes substitution errors occur where there is no apparent semantic relation with the target, but there is a phonological relation. ?
– professional wrestler who was caused severe industry
Sound Exchange - Movement
? Attributed to Spooner:
– You have hissed all my mystery lectures – You have tasted the whole worm – Do you reel feally bad?
? Phonemic segments
– a leading list – pill the fool
– – – –
precipitate suggestive magicians oven
participate subjective musicians onion
? Phonetic features
– pig and vat
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Phonological Errors
? Blends:
– hilarity/hysterics – grab/reach – edited/annotated hilarics greech editated
Speech Error Studies
? Pattern of errors (Stemberger, 1985) ? Relative frequency of errors ? Problems:
– Paucity of data ? errors = 3% self-interruptions (Blackmer & Mitton, 1991) – Bias/inaccuracies in corpus transcription: ? Transcriber bias/inaccuracy (Ferber, 1991) ? Distributional characteristics of language
? Speech errors in Chinese
– 沈家暄 Shen Jia Xuan (1992)，中国语文
– Categorization problems
Manipulating pathways: priming
? Priming: – change probability/ease of producing particular utterance. ? Concurrent presentation: – Distractor and target presented at same time ? Consecutive presentation: – Distractor presented and processed before target
Manipulating pathways: Concurrent presentation
? Picture-word interference:
– Target stimulus:
–presented visually –must be named
– Distractor stimulus:
–presented auditorily or visually –must be ignored
– Stimulus onsets may be simultaneous or staggered
（2）语言理解
? Some words are obviously ambiguous (i.e., having multiple unrelated entries in a dictionary, the phenomenon of polysemy).
– How is the contextually appropriate meaning activated and selected?
? Even unambiguous words have many semantic attributes, only some of which are relevant in the current context (the phenomenon of semantic flexibility).
– How are the relevant attributes activated and selected?
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语境影响词义
Different Accounts
? Exhaustive or multiple access. Lexical retrieval of meaning is completely autonomous with respect to sentence interpretation:
– all meanings are accessed automatically, only then is the relevant one selected, and the irrelevant one being suppressed (Swinney et al., 1979, 1981; Seidenberg et al., 1982).
? Selective access. Sentence interpretation and sense activation interact, so that context constrains access to the relevant meaning (Glucksberg et al., 1986; Simpson, 1981; McClelland, 1987)
Different Accounts
? Intermediate view. Many ambiguous words have clearly dominant and subordinate meanings (i.e., frequencies of usage of the two senses):
– the dominant meaning is always accessed, – the subordinate one is accessed only if the dominant one turns out to be incompatible with the context.
Cross-Modal Semantic Priming
? Swinney (1979) found that
– visual lexical decision to a probe presented at the ambiguous word’s offset showed facilitation if it was related to either meaning, – but a probe appeared three syllables (approximate 800 ms) later showed facilitation only if it was related to the contextually relevant meaning. – That is, the biased context did not appear to prevent the “wrong” meaning being accessed initially.
Swinney (1979)
? Rumor had it that, for years the government building had been plagued with problems, The man was not at all surprised when found spiders, roaches, bugs and other bugs in the corner of his room. ? Visual probe: ANT ? SPY ? HAT +38 ms +31 ms +53 ms -1 ms
Tanenhaus et al. (1979) and Seidenberg et al. (1982)
They used syntactically biasing contexts and noun/verb ambiguities (e.g., watch): Again, 0 ms after the offset of the ambiguous word, both senses exhibited priming; 200 ms later, only the appropriate sense was activated. probe at 0 ms +17 +12 probe at 200 ms +11 -3
They bought a rose They all rose
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However...
? Tabossi (1987, 1988) and Simpson & Krueger (1991) has shown that
– with strongly constraining contexts, i.e., those designed to make relevant particular semantic features of one meaning of the ambiguous word, selective access can be demonstrated for the dominant meaning. – When the contextually appropriate meaning was the non-dominant meaning, the multiple access patterns was obtained.
Tabossi et al. (1987)
? “The violent hurricane did not damage the ships which were in the port, one of the best equipped along the coast.” ? “Port” was immediately followed by the visually probes
– SAFE (related to the dominant meaning), – RED (related to the non-dominant meaning), – SHORT (unrelated).
? RT (SAFE) < RT (RED) = RT (SHORT).
What do we do when we process a sentence? ? ? Perceptual processes
– – recognise words in a sentence. provides syntactic and semantic knowledge to determine what kind of word each word is, and what it means syntactic and semantic combination rules are used to put the words together into meaningful groups and to determine the literal meaning determines the meaning intended in the context
Syntactic Description
?A syntactic (structural) description of a sentence.
lexical access
?
parsing/interpretation
–
?
Pragmatics
–
What is the Relation between the Stages of Processing?
? modular view – Lexical access and syntactic parsing are autonomous (self-contained modules) interactive view – Semantic (and contextual) information can be used to guide lexical access and syntactic analysis:
Modularity and Autonomy
? Fodor (1983)
– the cognitive system consists of a number of independent modules. – The language system is modular, and it operates independently of other modules.
?
? Forster (1979)
– the language system itself consists of modules that operate autonomously. ? semantic, syntactic …
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（2）语言理解
Does information flow back down the dotted lines? Modular view says “no” Interactive view says “yes”
句法分析与语义
– The performer sent the flowers (to the...) vs. – The performer sent the flowers (was very…)
Characteristics of Spoken Language
? ? ? ? Swift and Transient Directional Variable Continuous with no obvious gaps between words ? Can be ambiguous
(main clause vs. reduced relative clause) – The spy saw the cop with the binoculars – The spy saw the cop with a revolver (VP vs. NP attachment of prepositional phrase
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The Role of Prosody
? Can prosody assist syntactic disambiguation? ? Speer, Crowder & Thomas (1993)
– They are COOKING apples – They are cooking APPLES – Subjects successfully use prosodic information to select an appropriate paraphrase
? Scott (1982)
– Kate or Pat and Tony will come – The presence of (phrase final) lengthening on either Kate or Pat, influences subjects’ interpretation of the sentence
生活中的心理学
－－非人类的动物能学习语言吗？
（3）语言、思维和文化
⊙萨波尔－ －沃夫假设 语言相关性 语言决定论 语言影响颜 色判断
3 视觉认知
对于“猫在垫子 上”的视觉表 征，有两个选 择：
Internal Representation: Imagery
? Mental images are analogue
– a form of knowledge representation that preserves the main perceptual features of whatever is being represented
? Visual perception allows us to inspect, reach for, manipulate objects and navigate around them. ? Visual imagery is analogous to perception in that it can be used to represent and process information about objects, in the mind.
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What is Mental Imagery
? Imagery is the mental representation of things (objects, events, settings, etc.) that are not currently being sensed by the sense organs
– may represent things that have never been observed by your sense – may represent things that do not exist at all – may involve representations in any of the sensory modalities
? Memory
Functions of Mental Imagery
– Retrieval of information – Storage
? Reconstructing where you left your car keys ? Remembering the appearance of objects or spatial arrangements of objects
? Spatial Reasoning
– Visually simulating a process (e.g., walking to the bus station form your house) – Captures spatial relations that would be too taxing for the system to represent propositionally
? Problem-solving
– Can manipulate objects mentally to aid in decision-making – allows us to anticipate the perceptual consequences of actions prior to actually carrying out the actions in the real world
? Visual imagery - most studied
– individual differences
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
“The psychical entities which seem to serve as elements in thought are certain signs and more or less clear images which can be “voluntarily” reproduced and combined….From a psychological viewpoint this combinatory play seems to be the essential feature in productive thought.” -- Einstein, 1949
Friedrich Von Kekule (1829-1896)
Kekule (1865)
“ I turned in my chair to the fire and dozed. Again the atoms were gambolling before my eyes......My mental eye, rendered more acute by repeated visions of this kind, could now distinguish larger structures, of manifold conformation; long rows, sometimes more closely fitted together; all twining and twisting in snakelike motion. But look! What was that? One of the snakes has seized hold of its own tail, and the form whirled mockingly before my eyes. As if by a flash of lightening I awoke.”
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Finke‘s (1989) Visual Imagery principles
? Our mental transformations of images and our mental movements across images corresponds to similar transformations and movements across physical objects and percepts ? The spatial relations among elements of a visual image are analogous to those relations in actual physical space ? The construction of mental images is analogous to the construction of visually perceptible figures ? Visual imagery is functionally equivalent to visual perception in terms of the processes the visual system used for each.
Funtional-equivalence Hypothesis
? Although visual imagery is not idential to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to it, employing the same operations to serve the same purposes for their respective domains
– Mental rotation – image scaling – image scanning
Demonstration of Mental Rotation
心理旋转就像物理旋转
Image Size
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Rabbit & Elephant
? Imagine an elephant standing next to a rabbit. ? Now answer this question: – Does a rabbit have a beak?
Image Scanning
? Subjects are given a fictitious map of an island with landmarks ? Initially subjects spend some time memorize the map, until they can reproduce it accurately as a drawing ? They are then given the name of an object, and are asked to image the map and focus on that object ? A few seconds later, a second object is heard and subjects are instructed to scan from the first object to the second by imaging a flying black dot ? It is possible to determine whether the time taken to scan from one object on the map to another is related to the actual distance on the map between these two points
Image Scanning
Scanning Data
Results
? The further apart the two locations, the longer it took subjects to report that they could see the second location in the image ? There were no distance effects when they memorized a list of location names and had to respond whether certain words were on the list
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Cognitive Maps
? Tolman & Honzik (1930): Three groups of rats: reward group, no reward group, no reward until the 11th day
– with just one reinforcement, the learning of the later rats improved dramatically, so that these rats ran the maze about as well as the rats in the first group in fewer trials – They formed a cognitive map about the maze
Rat Map
Karl von Frisch (1962, 1967), bee dancing a round dance, within 100 yards; a figure-eight dance, greater distance
4 问题解决和推理
科学家如何探讨 治疗艾滋病这种 不清楚的问题。
What is a problem?
? A problem occurs when we have a goal that we wish to attain and cannot immediately attain it. ? a problem consists of several basic components
– an initial state (situation at the beginning of the problem) – a goal state (the solution to the problem) – a set of rules (or constraints) that must be followed – and usually, a set of obstacles that must be overcome
Types of problems
? transformation problems: solver is presented with the goal state and must find the proper strategies that will transform the initial state into the goal state ? arrangement problems: solver is presented with all the necessary elements to solve the problem and must figure out how the elements are to be arranged ? induction problems: solver is given a series of instances and must figure out the rule that relates the instances ? deduction problems: solver is given premises and must determine whether a conclusion fits these premises ? divergent problems: solver must generate as many solutions as possible to a given problem
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