Grammar_Translation_Method

Grammar_Translation_Method
Grammar_Translation_Method

Chapter 2 The Grammar-Translation Method

1.Key points( 学习要点)

1.Definition(定义)

The Grammar-translation Method is a method of foreign or second language teachi ng, which uses translation and grammars study as the main teaching and learning activ ities. At one time it was called Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages of Latin and Greek.

2. Basic Principle(基本原则)

2.1 Main features(主要特征)

(1) Grammar is the core of language,

and language materials are arranged according to the grammar system.(语法是语言的核心,教材内容是根据语法体系安排的)

(2) The main teaching activities are analysis, explanation and translation.(主要教学

活动是分析,解释和翻译)

(3) The major practice is translation from and into the target language.(主要教学实

践是用目标语进行翻译)

(4) The teaching focus is reading and writing.(教学重点是阅读和写作)

(5) First language is the main medium of instruction.(第一语言是主要的教学中介

语言)

(6) The sentence is the basic unit of language teaching and learning.(句子是语言教

学的基本单位)

(7) Language accuracy is emphasized.(强调语言的准确性)

2.2 Objectives(教学目标)

The objectives of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation Method cla

ssroom are to enable the learners:

(1)to read and translate its literature;(能够阅读和翻译所学的文学作品;)

(2)understand the target language;(能够帮助和理解目标语)

(3)to help develop their minds;(能够帮助学生发展智力;)

(4)to gain a better understanding of the first language.(能够更好地理解第一语言) An ultimate purpose of learning a foreign language in a Grammar-Translation classr oom is to enable the learners to read and translate its literature. Students are required t o memorize the grammatical rules in order to understand the target language. The othe r objectives of the method are to provide students with good mental exercises that hel p develop their minds, and to gain a better understanding of the first language.

2.3 Techniques(教学技巧)

A Grammar-Translation teacher usually uses the following techniques to help realize

the course objectives:

(1)Reading(短文阅读)

CityplaceReading passages are planned around the sequenced grammatical structur es and vocabulary to be studied and are excerpted from literary works or carefully wri tten by a compiler, including particular grammar rules and vocabulary.

(2)Translation(翻译)

Translation can be employed in presenting a new grammatical item, understanding a new passage, or as exercises at the end of a lesson.

(3)Deductive teaching of grammar(演绎法语法教学)

Grammar rules are taught directly by the teacher, with exceptions to each rules noted.

(4)Analysis and comparison(分析和比较)

Difficult sentences are analyzed in detail and compared with the first language senten

ces.

(5)Memorization(记忆)

Students are required to memorize bilingual word lists and grammatical rules.

(6)Reading comprehension questions(阅读理解问题)

Different questions are designed for students to answer to check the understanding of

the reading passage.

(7)Written work(书面作业)

Fill-in-the-blanks are one kind of written work. Using new words to make up sentence

s is another type of written work.

Composition is frequently employed in traditional foreign language teaching.

2.4 Procedures(教学步骤)

The main procedures for a typical lesson with the Grammar-Translation Method can be divided into three phases. The activities in each phase are described below:

(1)Phase one(步骤一)

A. The teacher reads and explains the new words and expressions in the first language.

B. The teacher teaches the new grammar with deductive method.

(2)Phase two(步骤二)

A.Students are asked to read a few sentences out aloud and translate them into the firs

t language.

B. The teacher analyses some difficult sentence and translates them into their native

language first literally and then freely.

C. Students read the studied part of the passage silently and ask the teacher questions

they cannot answer by themselves.

(3)phase three(步骤三)

A. Students are asked to write the answers to the questions about the reading passage .

B. Students are asked to do other written work that is meant to reinforce the new gra

mmar items and vocabulary.

3.Summary and Comments(总结与结论)

1)advantages(优点)

(1)It makes use of the first language(该方法运用了第一语言)

In Grammar-Translation Method, the first language is maintained as the reference sy

stem in the learning of the second language.

(2)It helps students develop reading comprehension and production of written langu

age.(它有助于发展学生的阅读理解能力和书面语的表达能力)

Systematic study of grammatical rules plays an important role in fostering students' ability of reading comprehension and producing grammatically correct sentences. The

focus on understanding literary texts provides the situation in which reading and writi

ng are well trained.

(3)It is easy for teachers to use.(教师易于使用这一教学法)

The Grammar-Translation Method makes few demands on teachers although it often creates frustration for students. It is relatively easy to apply.

2) Disadvantages(缺点)

(1)Overemphasis on translation, dependence on first language(过分强调翻译,

依赖母语)

Overemphasis on translation can never emancipate the learners from dependence o

n the first language.

(2)Too much emphasis on reading and writing, neglect of listening and speaking(过

分强调阅读和写作,忽视了听和说)

It puts too much emphasis on reading and writing and neglects listening and speakin

g.

(3)Not meeting the communicative and practical needs of the students(不能满足学

生的交际需要和实际需要)

Knowing a large number of grammatical rules cannot ensure that students can use t hem appropriately in real communicative situation. The texts are mostly taken from lit erary works. The language learned often doesn't meet the practical needs of the learne

rs

(4)Rote-learning(死记硬背的学习)

Memorizing grammar rules and bilingual word lists does not motivate students to a

ctively communicate in the target language.

Chapter 3 The Direct Method

1. Definition

The Direct Method is a method of foreign or second language teaching which insists that only the target language should be used in class and meanings should be communicated “directly” by associating speech forms with actions, objects, mime, gestures, and situations.

The Direct Method emphasizes the importance of spoken language, therefore holds that reading and writing should be taught only after speaking.The Direct Method believes in the natural process of language learning and in the inductive teaching of grammar.

2. Main features

The Direct Method aims at developing the students' ability to communicate in the target language. In order to do this successfully students are encouraged to learn to think in the target language.

In the classroom, the meaning of a new target language word or phrase is presented by relating the expression directly to objects, visual aids, or to familiar words in the foreign language wherever possible.

In the Direct Method, the target language is used exclusively in the language classroom as a means of instruction and communication. The first language and translation exercise are completely avoided.

In contrast to the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method may never give an explicit grammar rule. In the Direct Method, grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities.

In the Direct Method, although the teaching of all four language skills is advocated by most Direct Methodologists, oral communication skills are regarded as basic. Correct pronunciation is emphasized in the Direct Method.

The syllabus used in the Direct Method is arranged semantically according to situations or topics. The spoken form in the target language is studied in preference to literary language.

Vocabulary is not introduced as detached words, but as a connected story. The unit in a language is the sentence.

3. Objectives

The objectives of the Direct Method are to foster the students' ability to communicate in the target language. The general goal of a language program is to teach conversational skills. The reason for the exclusive use of the foreign language in the Direct Method is to enable the students to think in the target language, so that they can use it to express themselves directly without referring to their mother tongue. To train for basic language skills is not neglected, but reading and writing exercises should be based upon what the students practice orally first. Pronunciation is paid attention to from the beginning of a course. Vocabulary takes precedence over grammar.

4. Techniques

In order to realize the goal of teaching, a Direct Method teacher is usually found using the following techniques:

1. Direct association (直接联系): new language items are presented by associating meaning with the target language directly.

2. Question and answer exercises: in order to have the newly-introduced language items fully understood by students, the teacher answers students' questions and asks students to answer her questions in full sentences.

3. Conversation practice: students are encouraged to ask each other questions using the same grammatical structures they have practiced.

4. Error correction. Students are not allowed to make mistakes. Their mistakes are immediately corrected by the teacher or by students themselves.

5. Dictation (听写): Dictation is an exercise frequently used in consolidation with written work in the Direct Method. Dictation is used as a means to reinforce and test what the students have learned.

6. Inductive teaching of grammar. Grammar is learned inductively through listening and speaking activities.

7. Listening comprehension tasks. Designing listening comprehension tasks is one of the ways to establish a favorable classroom climate in the Direct Method.

8. Graded composition (分级作文): writing can be introduced as a means of consolidation and evaluation in the Direct Method. Written work should be graded in the following sequence: ①reproduction of familiar reading texts;② reproduction of narratives orally presented by the teacher; ③ free composition.

5. Classroom procedures:

Classroom procedures in the Direct Method can be roughly divided into three phases: presentation by Direct Association; Oral practice in the target language; consolidation with written work.

6. Summary and Comments

The Direct Method advocates the importance of oral language and believes that language should be learned through direct association of form and meaning.

The Direct Method mainly uses such techniques as question-and-answer, dictation and conversation practice which are still widely used in foreign language teaching classrooms today.

7. The advantages

The use of the target language as a means of instruction and communication in the classroom contributes greatly to forming the habit of thinking in the target language, which is necessary in efficient real communication.

The emphasis on practice with new language items and on language skills, rather than on language knowledge, is important in achieving automaticity of using the target language.

The emphasis on spoken language conforms to the objectives of modern language teaching. Special attention paid to pronunciation and intonation is desirable in teaching spoken language.

Regarding listening and speaking as the basis of reading and writing is strategic in fostering the four skills.

Using full sentences as teaching units makes foreign language learning more natural and efficient for students to understand a new text and acquire a language. 8. The disadvantages

Overemphasizing the similarities between naturalistic first language acquisition and classroom foreign language learning results in the exclusive use of the target

language. The absolute avoidance of the native tongue occasionally troubles the Direct Method in teaching the meaning of abstract concepts.

Without explicit grammar explanation, students lack a necessary knowledge of the target language. As a result, they tend to produce utterances with a lot of grammatical mistakes in them. It is difficult for them to safeguard against mistakes and self-correct them without the guidance of the rules of the target language.

The Direct Method places a high demand on the teacher. It requires native-speaker teachers or teachers who have native-speaker-like fluency in the target language.

Chapter 4 The Oral Approach

1.Definition(定义)

The oral approach(口语法) (or Situational language teaching情景教学法) refers to an approach to language teaching developed by British applied linguistics from the 1930s to the 1960s. It is a grammar-based method in which principles of grammar and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.

2. Basis Principles(基本原则)

1.Main features(主要特征)

(1)Language teaching begins with the spoken language. (语言教学从口语开始)

Language material is taught orally before it is presented in the written form.

(2)The target language is the language of the classroom. (用目标语作课堂教学用

语)

The target language is the language of instruction. Translation should be avoided.

(3)New language is introduced and practiced in situations. (在情景中介绍和练习

新语言)

New language points are introduced and practiced situationally, i.e. words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced in meaningful contexts and not be taught as isolated, disconnected elements.

(4)Common core words are covered. (选词应包括普通常用词汇)

Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.

(5)Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively. (语

法项目按照从简单到复杂,用归纳法来讲授)

Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones, and inductively.

(6)Reading and writing are introduced later. (读和写的教学在后期进行)

Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.

2.Objectives(教学目标)

The objectives of the oral approach are to help students to:

?get a practical command of the four basic skills of language. (掌握四种基本的语言技能)

?obtain accuracy in pronunciation and grammar.(掌握准确的发音及语法)

The objectives of the language teaching are to help learners to get a practical command of the four basic of language. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs.

3.Techniques(教学技巧)

The practical techniques in the oral approach generally consists of :

?new sentence patterns are presented in situations.(用情景介绍新句型)

?drill-based practice.(操作练习)

?guided repetition and substitution activities. (指导下的复述和替代练习)

?dictation, imitation and controlled oral-based reading and writing tasks(听写,模仿和教师规定的以口语为基础的朗读和写作)

4.Procedures(教学步骤)

The Oral Approach employs different classroom procedures according to the level of the class. Procedures at any level aim to move from controlled to free practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading, and writing. The classroom procedures generally consist of:

1.listening practice(听力练习)in which the teacher obtains her

students’attention and repeats an example of the patterns or a word in isolation clearly, several times, probably saying it slowly at least once (e.g.

Where…is…the…pen?), separating the words.

2.choral imitation(齐声模仿) in which students all together or in

large groups repeat what the teacher has said. This works best if the teacher gives a clear instruction like “Repeat”, or “Everybody”and hand signals to mark time and stress.

3.individual imitation(单独模仿) in which the teacher asks

several individual students to repeat the model she has given in order to check their pronunciation.

4.Isolation (突出重点), in which the teacher isolates sounds,

words or groups of words which cause trouble and goes through techniques 1-3 with them before replacing them in context.

5.building up to new model(为新句型做准备), in which the

teacher gets students to ask and answer questions using patterns they already know in order to bring about the information necessary to introduce the new model.

6.elicitation(启发提示), in which the teacher, using mime,

prompt words, gestures, etc., gets students to ask questions, make statements, or give new examples of the pattern.

7.substitution drill(替换练习) in which the teacher, using

cues(words, pictures, numbers, names, etc.) gets individual students to substitute words into the new patterns.

8.question-answer drilling(问答练习)in which the teacher gets one student

to ask a question and another to answer until most students in the class have practiced asking and answering the new question form.

9.correction(改错练习)in which the teacher indicates by shaking

her head, repeating the error, etc., that there is a mistake and invites the students or a different student to correct it. Where possible the teacher does not simply correct the mistake herself. She gets students to correct themselves so they will be encouraged to listen to each other carefully.

Chapter 5 The Audiolingual Method

1.Definition (定义)

The Audiolingual Method is a method of foreign language teaching which emphasizes the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing. It uses

dialogues as the main form of language presentation and drills as the main training techniques. Mother tongue is discouraged in the classroom.

2.Main features(主要特征)

By drawing on the structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology, the Audiolingual Method formed its own distinctive characteristics. There are mainly five of them:

1.Separation of language skills into listening, speaking, reading and writing,

with emphasis on the teaching of listening and speaking before reading and writing;(把语言分成听、说、读、写四种技能,在教学中强调先听说,后读写;)

https://www.360docs.net/doc/653368587.html,e of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the language;(对话是语言

教学中的主要形式;)

3.Emphasis on certain practice techniques: mimicry, memorization and pattern

drills; (强调模仿、记忆、和句型操练;)

4.Discouraging the use of the mother tongue in the classroom;(在课堂教学中避

免使用母语;)

https://www.360docs.net/doc/653368587.html,e of language lab.(使用语言实验室)

3. Objectives(教学目标)

The general objective of the Audio lingual Method is to enable the students to use to target language communicatively. Short-range objectives include training in listening comprehension, accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing. In other words, the objective of the Audio lingual Method are the development of mastery in all four language skills, beginning with listening and speaking, and using these as a basis for the teaching of reading and writing. Long-range objective, or the ultimate goal, is to develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speaking have, to use it automatically without stopping to think.

4.Techniques(教学技巧)

Dialogues and pattern practice form the basis of audio lingual classroom practice.

The use of them is a distinctive feature of the Audio lingual Method. The techniques used by the Audio lingual Method are:

1.Repetition drill(重复练习):This drill is often used to teach the lines

of the dialogue. Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible. e.g.:

T S

This is a book→This is a book.

Students do this without looking at their book. They have to produce the appropriate sounds first.

2.Substitution drill( 替换练习):The students repeat the line from the

dialogue which the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place. e.g.:

T C S

They drink wine. →beer→They drink beer.

→coffee→They drink coffee.

→tea→They drink tea.

The major purpose of this drill is to give the students practice in finding and filling in the slots of a sentence.

3.Question-and-answer drill(问答练习):The drill gives students practice

with answering questions. The students should answer the teacher’s question very quickly. It is also possible for the teacher to cue the students to ask questions as well.

This gives students practice with the question pattern. e.g.

1. T: Are there any questions? Ss: No, there aren't any.

T: Is there any milk? Ss: No, there isn't any.

T: Are there any sandwiches? Ss: No, there aren't any.

T: Is there any wine? Ss: No, there isn't any.

2. T: he read The Times Ss: What did he read?

T: He said “Good morning.”Ss: What did he say?

T: He saw “The Sound of Music.”Ss: What did he see?

4.Expansion drill(扩展句子训练):This drill helps students to produce

longer sentence bit by bit, gradually achieving fluency. The main structure is repeated first, then students have to put cue phrase in its proper place. e.g.

T: They go to the cinema.

Ss: They go to the cinema.

T: On Sundays

Ss: They go to the cinema on Sundays.

T: Always.

Ss: They always go to the cinema on Sundays.

T: Nearly.

Ss: They nearly always go to the cinema on Sundays.

5.Clause combination drill (合并句子练习):Students learn to combine

two simple sentences into a complex one. e.g.

T: It may rain. He'll stay at home.

Ss: If it may rain, he'll stay at home.

T: It may be sunny. We'll go to the beach.

Ss: If it may be sunny, we'll go to the beach.

T: It may snow. They'll go skating.

Ss: If it may snow, they'll go skating.

(6) Backword build-up drill( or backchaining逆向读句练习):This drill is used

when a long line of dialogue is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line. Then, following the teacher’s cue, the students expand what they are repeating part by part until they are able to repeat the entire line. The teacher begins with the part at the end of the sentence (and works backward from there) to keep the intonation of the line as natural as possible. This also directs more student attention to the end of the sentence, where new information typically occurs. e.g.

T: the flowers

Ss: the flowers

T: watering the flowers

Ss: watering the flowers

T: is watering the flowers

Ss: is watering the flowers

T: Ian is watering the flowers.

Ss: Ian is watering the flowers.

(7)Chain drill(完成链接练习) :A chain drill gets its name from the chain of

conversation that forms around the classroom as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other. The teacher begins the chain by greeting a particular student, or asking him a question. That student responds, and then turns to the student sitting next to him. e.g.

T: Hello, what’s your name?

S1: My name is John Smith. (He turns to the student next to her.) Hello, what’s your name?

S2: My name is Mary Clinton. (She turns to the student next to her.) Hello, what’s your name?

S3: My name is Peter.

……

(8)Completion (完成句子练习):Students hear an utterance that is complete

except for one word, and then repeat the utterance in completed form. e.g.

T: I’ll go my way and you go_____

Ss: I’ll go my way and you go yours.

T: We all have____own troubles.

Ss: We all have our own troubles.

(9) Use of minimal pairs (最小成对练习,又称语音辨别练习) :The teacher

works with pair of words which differ in only one sound; students are first asked to find the difference between the two word and later to say the two words. e.g.

ship—sheep live—leave leap—lip bit—beat

4)Procedures(教学步骤)

In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:

(1)Recognition (认别) : Students first hear a model dialogue (either read by the

teacher or on the tape) containing the key structures that are the focus of the lesson and try to understand the meaning of the dialogue with the help of the teacher’s gestures, mime, and context or situation established in advance.

(2)Imitation and repetition (模仿和复述):The students repeat each line of the

dialogue, individually and in chorus. The students must imitate the right pronunciation, intonation and fluency.

(3) Pattern drills (句型操练):Certain key structures from the dialogue are

selected and used as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds.

(4) Follow-up activities (补充练习):The students now are allowed to look at

their textbooks. They are usually asked to do some follow-up reading, writing or vocabulary activities. This will guide their use of the language.

Chapter 6 The Cognitive Approach

1. Definition (定义)

The Cognitive Approach(认知法) (or the cognitive-code method/learning也称认知-符号法/认知-符号学习理论) is approach to foreign language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active method processes and not simply the forming of habits. It lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system. (它认为语言学习是一种积极的心智活动过程,而不是简单的习惯形成过程。这一教学法认为学习者要主动参与学习语言和使用语言,特别是在学习语法规则的过程中,要充分发挥其重

要作用,认知法认为语言是一个意义系统,强调在理解的基础上有意识地学习语言,其理论基础是认知理论和转换生成语法理论。)

2.Main features (主要特征)

(1) Knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. (了解语言规则使语言学习更容易)

(2) Rules are taught deductively. (演绎法讲授语言规则)

(3) Competence comes before performance. (语言能力在先,语言行为在后)

It is believed the knowledge of language rules form the learner's language foundation. By using the language rules as a base we can select the vocabulary to mean the things we want. The Cognitive Approach holds that knowledge of language rules facilitates learning. Language rules are taught deductively. Learners must learn the rules of the language before applying them. Competence comes before performance. The learning of grammar should be conducted in a functional way so that learners may apply what they have learnt to actual communicative situation.

(4) The learner is the center of classroom teaching. (学习者是课堂教学的中心)

(5) Language practice is the main form of classroom teaching. (语言实践是课堂教学的主要形式)

(6) Leaning is based on understanding. (在理解的基础上学习语言)

The Cognitive Approach insists that learning is based on understanding. Language learning is a creative process. The students can only perform after they have understood the system of the language. We can't imitate without activating a cognitive process. In a Cognitive Approach classroom, meaningful learning and meaningful practice are emphasized during the entire learning process.

(7) The Cognitive Approach gives equal importance to all the four skills. (认知法对四种语言技能一视同仁)

The Cognitive Approach utilizes all four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. This agrees more with the nature of real communication, in which people seldom use one skill. In real life, communication is carried through all the possible channel: listening involves speaking, reading might involve writing. When a foreign language leaner can resort to all the possible target language resources, learning will be more effective.

(8)Mistakes are unavoidable. (错误是不可避免的)

The Cognitive Approach holds that mistakes are unavoidable in the creative use of language. Students’mistakes are a necessary and natural phenomenon, and a feature of the language as he progresses in the second language. Semigrammatical sentences should be accepted as a normal stage towards native-like competence.

3. Objectives (教学目标)

The objectives of the Cognitive Approach are:

(1)to develop in the students the native –like competence; (具有本族语者的语言能力;)

(2)to develop intuitive thinking in learners; (鼓励学生进行语言的直觉思维)

(3)to develop strategies of language use; (发展语言运用中的各种策略;)

(4) to enable the students to learn from errors. (使学生具有从错误中学习语言的能力)

The goal of the Cognitive Approach is to develop the students the same type of abilities possessed by native speakers. The students should reach the point at which they can formulate their own replies to previously unmet language situations. (在没有经历过的语言环境中,学生能够创造出自己的应答)It is important to encourage intuitive thinking in learners. Therefore, teachers need to seek a balance between, on the one hand, teaching aspects of the target language and skills in the language, and on the other hand, developing the learner's ability to analyze the language, to make guesses as to how rules operate, to take risks in trying out the language, and to learn from their errors.

4. Techniques (教学技巧)

我们的结论是,认知法课堂教学的有三部分组成: 语言规则的学习(rule learning)、有意义的实践(meaningful practice)和创造性的活动(creativity)

5. Exemplification

In a cognitive classroom, there is usually no pre-reading period; students see the written text from the very beginning; students are given written assignment after their first lesson. Listening and reading as receptive skills precede speaking and writing. The system of the language is taught through formal grammatical explanations and analysis and through cognitive exercises. And classroom reaching often follows three procedures:

Introduction of New Materials:

The first step in the classroom is to present all new sounds, vocabulary, and structures in a manner meaningful to each student. New sounds with their symbols are practiced as soon as they are introduced. New vocabulary can be introduced with visual aids, through contexts, by paraphrasing, or even by explanation in the native language. New structures can be presented by means of visual aids, comparison and contrast, explanation, examples, or demonstrations. The purpose of this introductory part is to develop students’comprehension of the language and prepare the students for the next two procedures-exercises and application activities.

Exercises

Exercises are designed to consolidate the understanding of the new material, to help the students learn to manipulate and to remember these forms, thus completing the understanding process, and building up language competence. “The purpose of a

cognitive exercise is the comprehension of forms, the conscious learning of forms, and the conscious selection of forms to fit the context”. (认知练习的目的是理解语法规则、有意识地学习语法、并能根据语境的需要自觉地选用语法形式) (Chastain, 1976:151) Students are often required to make a conscious selection of word or form, and exercises are often done at home as part of homework. Exercises can be done by the student on his own and checked on his own.

Application Activities

This is the performance stage. The teacher assigns reading or listening comprehension passages for the students to study, so that they may see the learned forms used in context. Then the teacher can guide the students to engage in producing their own thoughts in the target language in either oral or written form. Such activities are more like guided practice in thinking in the language than mere repetitive drill.

A major feature of cognitive code-learning is the emphasis on explanations of grammatical functioning. This approach puts language analysis before language use and instruction by the teacher ahead of student practice of forms. It follows the one basic tenet that students never be expected to meet new structures prior to the explanation lf those forms. Cognition implies proceeding from mental understanding and awareness to practice of from studying a structure to seeing it used in context. (认知-符号学习理论的主要特征之一就是强调对语法功能的讲解。这一教学法把语言分析放在语言使用之前,把教师对语言的讲解放在学生练习语言之前。它遵循了这一基本原则:教师讲解在前,学生学习在后。认知过程就是从心智理解和意识的发展到实际运用的过程,从学习语言结构到观察它在情景中运用的过程。)(Chastain, 1976) The following is the deductive order of learning proposed by Chastain:

Step 1. comprehension of new grammatical concepts, which are presented deductively; (教师以演绎法的方式介绍新的语言材料)

Step 2. practice in selection of linguistic forms to fit the context in exercises; (练习学会选择适当的语言形式去适应一定的语言环境)

Step 3. The study of reading or listening materials, with some opportunity provided for students to produce messages intended to communicate their thoughts to others.

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