Development by example

Development by example
Development by example

Writing I-10 Development by Example

杨茜希农大外语学院课件仅供我们英语双学位同学使用,谢谢大家请勿挂网上哦Perhaps you?ve heard a friend complain lately about a roommate. “Tina is an inconsiderate boor, impossible to live with,” she cries. Your natural response might be to question your friend?s rather broad accusation: “What makes her so terrible? What does she do that?s so bad?” Your friend might then respond with specific examples of Tina?s insensitivity: she never washes her dishes, she ties up the telephone for hours, and she plays her radio until three every morning. By citing several examples, your friend clarifies and supports her general criticism of Tina, thus enabling you to understand her point of view.

Examples in an essay work precisely the same way as in the hypothetical story above: they support, clarify, interest, and persuade.

In your writing assignments, you might want to assert that dorm food is cruel and inhuman punishment, that recycling is a profitable hobby, or that the cost of housing is rising dramatically. But without some carefully chosen examples to show the truth of your statements, these remain unsupported generalities or mere opinions. Your task, then, is to provide enough specific examples to support your general statements, to make them both clear and convincing. Here is a statement offering the reader only hazy generalities:

①Our locally supported TV channel presents a variety of excellent educational

shows. The shows are informative on lots of different subjects for both children and adults. The information they offer makes channel 19 well worth the public funds that support it.

Rewritten, the same paragraph explains its point clearly through the use of specific examples:

②Our locally supported TV channel presents a variety of excellent educational

shows. For example, young children can learn their alphabet and numbers from Sesame Street; imaginative older children can be encouraged to create by watching Kids? Writes, a show on which four hosts read and act out stories written and sent in by youngsters from eight to fourteen. Adults may enjoy learning about antiques and collectibles from a program called The Collector; each week the show features an in-depth look at buying, selling, trading, and displaying collectible items, from Depression glass to teddy bears to Shaker furniture. Those folks wishing to become handy around the home can use information on repairs from plumbing to wiring on This Old House, while the nonmusical can learn the difference between scat singing and arias on such programs as Jazz! And Opera Today. And the money-minded can profit from the tips dropped by stockbrokers who appear on Wall Street Week. The information offered makes these and other educational shows on channel 19 well worth the public funds that support the station.

In some cases you may find that a series of short examples fits your purpose, illustrating clearly the idea you are presenting to your reader:

③In the earlier years of Hollywood, actors aspiring to become movie stars often

adopted new names that they believed sounded more attractive to the public.

Frances Ethel Gumm, for instance, decided to change her name to Judy Garland long before she flew over any rainbows, and Alexander Archibald Leach became Cary Grant on his way from England to America. Alexandra Cymboliak and Merle Johnson, Jr., might not have set teenage hearts throbbing in the early 1960s, but Sandra Dee and Troy Donahue certainly did. And while some names were changed to achieve a smoother flow (Frederic Austerlitz to Fred Astaire, for example), some may have also been changed to ensure a good fit on movie theater marquees as well as a place in their audience?s memory: the little Turner girl,Julia Jean Mildred Frances, for instance, became just Lana.

What?s the difference between with exemplification and without?

Try these—

*** (Wednesday/ Thursday/ Friday) is the darkest day of the week.

My *** (cell phone/ computer/ alarm clock…) is sometimes unreliable.

No one could be more scruffy than ***(someone you know/ have met before).

Sample Essay:

RIVER RAFTING TEACHES WORTHWHILE LESSONS

1 Sun-warmed water slaps you in the face, the blazing sun beats down on

your shoulders, and canyon walls speed by as you race down rolling waves of

water. No experience can equal that of river rafting. In addition to being fun

and exciting, rafting has many educational advantages as well, especially for

those involved in school-sponsored rafting trips. River trips teach students

how to prevent some of the environmental destruction that concerns the

park officials, and, in addition, river trips teach students to work together in

a way few other experiences can.

2 The most important lesson a rafting trip teaches students is respect for the

environment. When students are exposed to the outdoors, they can better

learn to appreciate its beauty and feel the need to preserve it. For example,

I went on a rafting trip three summers ago with the biology department at

my high school. Our trip lasted seven days down the Green River through

the isolated Desolation Canyon in Utah. After the first day of rafting, I found

myself surrounded by steep canyon walls and saw virtually no evidence of

human life. The starkly beautiful, unspoiled atmosphere soon became a

major influence on us during the trip. By the second day I saw classmates,

whom I had previously seen fill an entire room with candy wrappers and

empty soda cans, voluntarily inspecting our campsite for trash. And when

twenty-four high school students sacrifice washing their hair for the sake of

a suds-less and thus healthier river, some new, better attitudes about the

environment have definitely been established.

3In addition to the respect for nature a rafting trip encourages, it also

teaches the importance of group cooperation. Since school-associated trips

put students in command of the raft, the students find that in order to stay

in control, each member must be reliable, be able to do his or her own part,

and be alert to the actions of others. These skills are quickly learned when

students see the consequences of noncooperation. Usually this occurs the

first day, when the left side of the raft paddles in one direction, and the right

the other way, and half the crew ends up seasick from going in circles. An

even better illustration is another experience I had on my river trip. Because

an upcoming rapid was usually not too rough, our instructor said a few of us

could jump out and swim in it. Instead of deciding as a group who should go,

though, five eager swimmers bailed out. This left me, our angry instructor,

and another student to steer the raft. As it turned out, the rapid was fairly

rough, and we soon found ourselves heading straight for a huge hole (a hole

is formed from swirling funnel-like currents and can pull a raft under). The

combined effort of the three of us was not enough to get the raft completely

clear of the hole, and the raft tipped up vertically on its side, spilling us into

the river. Luckily, no one was hurt, and the raft did not topple over, but the

near loss of our food rations for the next five days, not to mention the raft

itself, was enough to make us all more willing to work as a group in the

future.

4 Despite the obvious benefits rafting offers, the number of river permits

issued to school groups continues to decline because of financial cutbacks. It

is a shame that those in charge of these cutbacks do not realize that in

addition to having fun and making discoveries about themselves, students

are learning valuable lessons through rafting trips—lessons that may help

preserve the rivers for future rafters.

Exe: Problems with My Apartment

When I was younger, I fantasized about how wonderful life would be when I moved into my own apartment. Now I'm a bit older and wiser, and my dreams have turned into nightmares. My apartment has given me nothing but headaches. From the day I signed the lease, I've had to deal with an uncooperative landlord, an incompetent janitor, and inconsiderate neighbors. First of all, my landlord has been uncooperative. . . .

I've had a problem not only with my landlord but also with an incompetent janitor. . . .

Perhaps the worst problem has been with the inconsiderate neighbors who live in the apartment above me. . . .

Sometimes, my apartment seems like a small, friendly oasis surrounded by hostile enemies.

I never know what side trouble is going to come from next: the landlord, the janitor, or the neighbors. Home may be where the heart is, but my sanity (mind, consciousness) is thinking about moving out.

Sample Essay: Violence

1. Four instances of violence come to my mind. One I read about in the newspapers; another I witnessed; in a third I was on the receiving end; in the fourth, the most brutal of them all, I was a perpetrator([,p?:pi'treit?]行凶者).

2. The first took place an hour?s d rive from my home in Atlanta, Georgia, when a mob in Athens, screaming epithets (a defamatory or abusive word or phrase恶名) and hurling rocks, attacked the dormitory occupied by the first Negro girl to enter the University of Georgia.

3.The second I saw years ago as I walked through a slum (a district of a city marked by poverty and inferior living conditions翻译_____________) area of the Lower East Side of New York: a little old Jew with a beard, pulling his pushcart, was arguing with a Negro who was dem anding payment for his work. The bearded man said he didn?t have the money and the Negro said he needed it and the argument grew, and the Negro picked up a stick of wood and hit the old man on the side of the head. The old man continued pushing the cart down the street, blood running down his face, and the Negro walked away.

4. In the third instance, I took my wife and two-year-old daughter to a concert given in an outdoor area near the town of Peekskill, New York. The concert artist was Paul Robeson. As he sang under the open sky to an audience of thousands, a shouting, angry crowd gathered around the field. When the concert was over and we drove off the grounds, the cars moving in a long slow line, we saw the sides of the road filled with cursing, jeer ing (选择jeer means: mockery/ cheering) men and women. Then the rocks began to fly. My wife was pregnant at the time. She ___________ (选择averted/ ducked) and pushed our daughter down near the floor of our car. All four side windows and the rear window were _____________ (填: What happened to the windows?) by rocks. Sitting in the back seat was a young woman, a stranger, to whom we had given a lift (搭便车). A flying rock __________(选择hit/ blew/ fractured ) her skull. There were dozens of casualties that day.

5. The fourth incident occurred in World War II when I was a bombardier(投弹手) with the Eighth Air Force in Europe. The war was almost over. German territory was shrinking, and the Air Force was running out of targets. In France, long since reoccupied(翻译______________)by our troops, there was still a tiny pocket of Nazi soldiers (翻译______________) in a protected encampment near the city of Bordeaux. Someone in the higher echelon s(['e??l?n]ranking) decided, though the end of the war was obviously weeks

away, that this area should be bombed. Hundreds of Flying Fortresses(轰炸机)went. In each bomb bay(炸弹舱)there were twenty-four one-hundred-pound fire-bombs, containing a new type of jellied gasoline(凝固汽油). We set the whole area aflame and obliterated the encampment. Nearby was the ancient town of Royan; that, too, was almost totally destroyed. The Norden bombsight (投弹瞄准器)was not that accurate.

6. These four instances of violence possess something in common. None of them could have been committed by any animal other than man. The reason for this does not lie alone in man?s superior ability to manipulate his environment. It lies in his ability to conceptualize his hatreds. A beast commits violence against specific things for immediate and visible purposes. It needs to eat. It needs a mate. It needs to defend its life. Man has these biological needs plus many more which are culturally created. Man will do violence not only against a specific something which gets in the way of one of his needs; he will do violence against a symbol which stands for, or which he believes stands for, that which prevents him from satisfying his needs. (Guilt by association is high-level thinking.)

7. With symbolic violence, the object of attack is deprived of its particularity. Only in this way can man overcome what I believe is his natural spontaneous feeling of oneness with other human beings. He must, by the substitution of symbol for reality, destroy in his consciousness the humanness of that being. To the angry crowds outside the dormitory in Athens, Georgia, their target was not Charlayne Hunter, an extremely ____________________(选择ordinary and mediocre/ attractive and intelligent)young woman, sitting, brave and afraid, in her room. She was a …dirty nigger? - a symbol abstracted from life. To the Negro who committed violence on the streets of New York, this was not a ____________(选择wealthy/ pathetic) old Jewish immigrant, forced in the last years of his life to peddle vegetables from a pushcart, but a dehumanized (deprived of humanness) symbol of the historic white____________ (选择businessman/ exploiter) who used the Negro?s labour and refused to pay him a just wage. To the screaming rock-throwers of Peekskill who fractured the skull of a young woman returning from a concert, the people in the car they attacked were not a family on an outing; in this car were people who had gone to hear a __________(填what colour?)-skinned communistic singer and who therefore were all congealed into a symbol representing nigger-loving communism. And as I set my interval meter (校准仪)and toggled of (触发)my bombs over the city of Royan, I was not setting fire to people?s homes, crushing and burning individual men, women and newborn babies. We were at war, we always dropped bombs on the enemy, and down there was the enemy.

(From an article by Howard Zinn in Violence in America)

Exe: Personality

Just to jog your thinking, here are some descriptive words that can be applied to people. You are not restricted to writing about these qualities. Write about whatever qualities the person you choose possesses.

共同但有区别责任原则

题目:共同但有区别的责任原则在实施中的困境与对策姓名:罗珠玉、戴政

共同但有区别的责任原则在实施中的困境与对策 摘要:共同但有区别的责任原则作为国际环境法的一项基本原则,该原则的要求在实践中未能得到充分尊重与落实。笔者通过对该原则实施困境及原因的分析,寻求解决该原则的可行性办法。 关键词:共同但有区别的责任原则;实施困境;可行性办法

共同责任和区别责任组成了共同但有区别责任原则。二者之间相辅相成,密不可分。一方面各国不能以任何的借口而拒绝参与环境保护问题,这是每个国家的共同责任;另一方面,基于合理性而产生的区别责任,我们在对待共同责任的同时要给予发达国家与发展中国家差别待遇。只有当我们正确的理解二者关系时才能确保该原则的正确实施。实践中,该原则面对来自不同国家的阻力。 一、共同但有区别的责任原则的实施困境 发达国家有先进的技术与雄厚的资金,在各国订立国际公约之初,对发达国家明确规定了需向发展中国家提供环保技术的援助。可公约本身并未说明具体的援助方式,使发达国家有机可趁,利用市场操作以高价的方式向发展中国家提供商业性援助。而即使存在无偿性援助,实际数据也令人心寒,发展中国家适应气候变化每年所需的资金大约在 500 亿美元,而联合国的专门基金从发达国家筹集到的资金从 90 年代初至今总计只有 670 亿美元,发达国家对发展中国家的资金援助可见一斑,这也是共同但有区别责任难以落实的一个重要原因。 在发展中国家共同但有区别的责任原则的实施也受到了挑战。发展中国家的经济水平比较落后,他们没有先进的技术支撑他们在保证解决自己温饱问题的同时兼顾环境保护,而要想解决生存问题必须以牺牲坏境为代价。传统的经济发展技术、能源技术已经不能适应现代可持续发展的要求,尤其 21 世纪对各国高新技术提出了更高的要求,在环境治理方面也不例外。现在单纯的现有技术转让已经不能满足发展中国家环境治理的需要了,发达国家需要尽可能地多与发展中国家进行技术交流与合作,让发展中国家也成为高新技术开发的参与者,掌握自主的知识产权。 最后,为应对国际环境的问题而制定的众多国际公约,足以应对坚持和实施共同但有区别的责任原则。比如《人类环境宣言》、《联合国气候变化框架公约》、《联合国海洋法公约》、《京都议定书》······这些制定与签署的国际公约,不仅构成了世界环境保护国家合作的标准,而且也未共同但有区别责任作出了各种细化的规定。 二、共同但有区别的责任原则实施中存在困难的原因 美国曾以不符合本国的国家利益为由退出《京都议定书》,而各国对其只能进行谴责,因为国家享有主权原则,有权决定自己是否愿意加入某一国际公约。

论共同但有区别责任原则在我国的适用(改)

论共同但有区别责任原则在我国的适用 摘要: 文章在结合我国的具体国情的基础上,对我国进行环境污染防治过程中在环境保护法律中适用这一前沿的原则所具有的理论基础以及需要注意的问题进行了探讨。 关键词:京都议定书;共同但有区别责任原则;共同责任;区别责任 1 共同但有区别责任原则概述 共同但有区别责任原则是国际环境法中的一项基本原则。这一原则的产生主要是基于各国社会发展的历史对国际环境的影响及本国的实际承担能力。其核心思想是,在实现将大气中温室气体的浓度稳定在防止气候系统受到危险的人为干扰的水 平上这一目标过程中全球各国都负有共同的责任和义务,但是基于各国的历史发展 状况及现实承受能力,发达国家应该在这一过程中应该率先承担并且承担主要的责任。 1.1共同但有区别的责任原则主要包含以下两个基本要素: 1.1.1共同责任 共同责任的理论依据:全球的生态系统是一个不可分割的整体,环境问题具有全球性,解决全球环境问题需要所有国家的参与,每个国家都有责任。全球环保问题已经成为人类共同关注的焦点,而不只是某一个国家的国内立法问题。 共同责任的内容:许多关于环境与发展的国际文件中均有共同责任的规定。共同责任要求每个国家不论其大小、贫富等方面的区别,都对保护全球环境负有一份责任,都应当参加全球环境保护事业,都必须在保护和改善环境方面承担义务。基于共同责任,所有国家,尤其是发展中国家,都应该参与关于可持续发展的立法以及相关法律 的实施。许多现有的有关环境的国际法律文件没有发展中国家的参与。为了保护发展中国家的利益,有必要对相关文件进行修订,从而确保上述法律文件适用范围的广泛性。 1.1.2有区别的责任 有区别的责任的理论依据:有区别的责任的理论依据是公平原则。如果一个国家曾未经其他国家同意而不公平地对其进行利用而使其付出代价,那么受害国有权要

论共同但有区别责任原则

论共同但有区别责任原则 ——全球环境 徐博 (机械与汽车工程系机制2082班) 摘要:文章在结合我国的具体国情的基础上,对我国进行环境污染防治过程中在环境保护法律中适用这一前沿的原则所具有的理论基础以及需要注意的问题进行了探讨。 关键词:京都议定书;共同但有区别责任原则 一、共同但有区别责任原则的主要内容 《京都议定书》第一次设定了具有法律约束力的温气限排额度,是迄今为止国际社会承诺削减温气排放、遏制地球变暖的唯一一项国际公约。结合1994年3月生效的《联合国气候变化框架国际公约》的相关内容可知,共同但有区别责任原则主要内容包含两个方面——共同责任以及有区别责任。由于现实原因的限制或者说是从公平的角度考虑,发达国家和发展中国家在国际环境保护中所要承担的责任的范围、时间、方式、手段等方面是有差异的,从历史和现实的角度出发,对于各国的具体责任的确定,应当兼顾公平与效率,统筹考虑各种因素,在公平和效率之间做出适当的权衡取舍。保护和改善全球环境是全人类的共同利益所在,是世界各国的共同责任。这种共同责任主要体现在:基于“地区生态系统的整体性”,各国,不论其大小、贫富方面的差别都应该采取措施保护和改善其管辖范围内的环境,并防止对管辖范围以外的环境造成损害,同时各国应该在环境方面相互合作和支持等。但是另一方面,由于各国经济发展和工业化的水平不同,废弃物和污染物的排放数量也不同,不应该要求所有的国家承担完全相同的责任。发达国家在自身发展过程中曾经向大气排放大量有害物质,最先并且主要是他们造成了大气的污染,发展中国家不应为他们造成的大气污染后果承担责任。 二、共同但有区别责任原则适用于我国环境法律体系的基础 不可否认,共同但有区别责任原则在全球范围内是适用、且必须加以运用的。一种被证实具有优越性的原则能否在我国的环境法中适用,必须要针对我国的具体国情以及此原则的特征进行分析。 (一)我国在环境保护方面与世界进行了深入的交流和合作,具备运用相应知识的能力 从环境角度来看,世界是一体的,一国环境的污染和破坏都可能引起相关地区甚至全球范围内的环境破坏。我国积极参加全球范围内的环境保护活动,签订相关的环境保护国际协议。我国先后与30多个国家签署了双边环境合作协议或备忘录,与美国、日本、法国、德国、加拿大、俄罗斯等10个国家签订了有关核安全与辐射环境管理的双边合作协议,与联合国环境规划署、联合国开发计划署、国际原子能机构、世界银行、亚洲开发银行、全球环境基金、蒙特利尔议定书多边基金等国际机构建立了密切的合作关系。积极参与了重要国际环境公约的谈判和重要多边环境论坛的活动,参加或签署了气候变化框架公约、生物多样性公约、保护臭氧层的维也纳公约和蒙特利尔议定书、巴塞尔公约、核安全公约等国际环境公约,广泛、深入地开展了有关国际公约的履约工作。表明我国在环境保护方面已经全面与世界接轨,对国际环境保护及其责任履行上的原则有了深入地了解和学习,能够结合我国的具体实际情况合理地移植到我国的相关法律体系中来。

论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任原则

目录 毕业论文诚信承诺书 (2) 摘要 (3) 关键字 (3) 正文 一、共同但有区别责任原则的概述 (3) 二、共同但有区别责任原则的发展 (4) 三、共同但有区别责任原则的性质 (5) 四、共同但有区别责任原则的意义 (6) 五、坚持和发展“共同但有区别责任”原则 (6) 结语 (7) 参考文献 (7)

毕业论文诚信承诺书 本人作为《论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任》一文的作者,郑重承诺: 一、本论文是我在导师的指导下,参考相关文献资料,进行分析研究,独立完成的,其中所引用的文献资料和相关数据,都是真实的,除标明出处的内容外,不包含他人已公开发表的研究成果和学术观点。 二、本论文中若有抄袭他人研究成果和剽窃他人学术观点,本人自愿承担取消毕业论文成绩、交回学历学位证书等一切后果。 学生签名: 年月日注:本承诺书一式二份,一份置于毕业论文分册首页,一份置于过程材料分册末页。

论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任原则 摘要 环境保护已经成为我们时代最为重大的主题之一。世界每一个成员都应当共同承担保护和改善全球环境的责任,环境保护不再是仅限于一个两个国家主权之间的事情。全球性环境问题需要所有国家的共同努力才能得以解决。在对环境问题形成所起的作用上,发达国家和发展中国家扮演者主次不同的角色。如果要让本来就相对贫困的发展中国家在解决目前的全球性问题上承担和发达国家同样的义务,肯定是不公平的,必然会遭到发展中国家的反对。国际环境法的共同但有区别的责任原则“就在这样的背景下产生了,它调解了国家之间的矛盾,促进各国都参与到全球环保事业当中,将不同国情,制度的国家团结成一个“求大同、存小异”合作的整体。共同担有区别的责任原则主要包含两层意思:共同责任和区别责任。它不但是国际法上的一项重要原则,更代表了环境争议思想在适用范围上的扩展,本文主要探讨共同但是有区别的责任的定义、内涵以及环境正义与共同但有区别的责任之间的关系,还有共同但有区别的责任定义的必要性。 关键字 共同但有区别的责任国际发达国家发展中国家 一、共同但有区别责任原则的概述 国际环境法中共同但有区别责任原则因体现谋求优先发展经济的利益诉求,获得大部分发展中国家认同。但该原则的地位、内容一直存有争议。随着中国、印度等发展中大国碳排放日益增长,在后续气候谈判中如仅以发展中国家身份不参加实质减排,将面临极大压力。因此,探讨该原则的地位以及承担责任的依据,对于确定发达国家与发展中国家应对气候变化所应承担的共同责任以及各自应承担的义务,将具有重要意义. 共同但有区别责任主要体现在国际气候大会中表现最为明显,备受关注的联合国第十九次气候变化大会雨2013年11月23日晚在波兰首都华沙落幕,会期比原计划拖延了一整天。经过长达两周的艰难谈判和激烈争吵,特别是会议结束前最后48小时,各国代表挑灯夜战,最终就德班平台决议、气候资金和损失损害补偿机制等焦点议题签署了协议。 但是,由于发达国家不愿承担历史责任,在落实向发展中国家提供资金援助问题上没有诚信,导致政治互信缺失,加上个别发达国家的减排立场严重倒退,致使谈判数次陷入僵局。会议最终经过妥协,达成了各方都不满意、但都能够接受的结果。 《联合国气候变化框架公约》第十九次缔约方会议暨《京都议定书》第九次缔约方会议23日晚打破僵局达成协议后在华沙落下帷幕。尽管大会成果不尽如人意,但中方表示,节能减排是中国可持续发展的内在要求,无论谈判进展如何

“共同但有区别的责任”原则的解读

龙源期刊网 https://www.360docs.net/doc/6b9122490.html, “共同但有区别的责任”原则的解读 作者:王小钢 来源:《中国人口·资源与环境》2010年第07期 摘要哥本哈根气候变化会议中最大的立场之争可能是关于“共同但有区别的责任”原则的政治辩论。“给不平等者以不平等”和“给平等者以平等”是“共同但有区别的责任”原则的哲学基础。历史责任、矫正正义和“与能力有关的责任”体现了“给不平等者以不平等”的理念。人均排放权和平等参与权则体现了“给平等者以平等”的理念。在“共同但有区别的责任”原则视域中,不是中国,而是丹麦和美国劫持了哥本哈根气候变化会议。从中国的立场看,国际社会在哥本哈根气候变化会议之后理应在“给不平等者以不平等”和“给平等者以平等”理念基础上坚守“共 同但有区别的责任”原则。首先,国际社会应将历史累积排放量和人均GDP作为适应气候变化的参考标准。其次,鉴于发展中国家的发展律令和后代人的正当需要,国际社会应将人均累积排放量和人均排放量作为减缓气候变化的参考标准。最后,国际社会必须按照平等参与原则开展将来的国际谈判。 关键词气候变化;共同但有区别的责任;给不平等者以不平等;历史责任:人均标准 中图分类号X22 文献标识码 A 文章编号1002-2104(2010)07-0031-07 doi:10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2010.07.005 2009年12月19日,哥本哈根气候变化会议落下帷幕。《联合国气候变化框架公约》(以下简称《公约》)各缔约方均不太满意,尽管缔约方会议同意“注意到”(taking note of)《哥本哈根协议》(Copenhagen Accord)。由于苏丹、委内瑞拉和玻利维亚等国家的反对,缔约方会议没有通过《哥本哈根协议》。在联合国条约中,“注意到”的术语意味着缔约方会议没有批准也没有通过,不持肯定态度也不持否定态度。哥本哈根会议中最大的立场之争可能是关于“共同但有区别的责任”(Common But Differentiated Responsibilities)原则的政治辩论。中国、印度、巴西和南非(BASIC四国)在多次谈判场合重申坚持“共同但有区别的责任”(Common But Differentiated Responsibilities)原则。然而,美国总统奥巴马(Barack Obama)甚至在12月18日领导人会议上发言将“共同但有区别的责任”修改为“共同但有区别的回应”(Common But Differentiated Responses)。在气候正义的视角下,全球气候体制中“共同但有区别的责任”原则的哲学基础究竟是什么?在“共同但有区别的责任”原则视域中,究竟是哪些国家劫持了哥本哈

论共同但有差别责任原则

黑龙江大学自学考试法律专业本科 毕业论文 题目:论共同但有差别责任原则作者:吴春刚 所在单位: 指导教师:李艳岩 黑龙江大学 2008年10月18日

目录 内容摘要 (1) 一、共同但有差别责任的体现 (1) 二、共同但有差别责任原则的内容 (2) 三、共同但有区别的责任原则的合理性分析 (2) 四、共同但有区别责任原则的正义基础 (3) (一)正义的一般含义 (3) (二)环境正义观念的起源 (4) (三)承担责任的实际能力分析 (4) 五、共同但有区别的责任原则在实践中的贯彻状况 (5) 六、落实共同但有差别责任原则的努力 (6) 七、结束语 (7) 参考文献 (9)

论共同但有差别责任原则 摘要:国际环境法是一个正在迅速发展的法学部门,国际环境法基本原则的体系也正在形成之中,共同但有差别责任原则的涵义分为共同的责任和有差别的责任,基于环境与人类的密切关系,在环境领域,全球所有国家对地球环境污染负有共同的防治责任,但是,由于历史的原因,发达国家只顾发展,不顾环境,大量使用环境资源和大量排放废弃物造成全球环境恶化,另发达国家在以全球环境资源的大量损耗和环境状况的急剧恶化为代价积累起来丰富的技术和财力资源,基于环境法的“谁破坏,谁治理”的公平原则,发达国家理应承担比发展中国家更为主要的或承担更多的义务。此原则在一系列国际环境法规中得到了体现。 关键词:国际环境法共同责任区别责任环境 一、共同但有差别责任的体现 保护和改善全球环境昰国际社会所要承担的共同义务。作为国际社会主要成员的各个国家,自然负有保护和改善环境的共同责任。1967年的《外层空间条约》和1971年的《禁止在海洋床底及其底土安置核武器和其他大规模毁灭性武器条约》都承认了人类对环境的“共同利益”,要实现共同利益必然要求各国承担共同责任。[1]1972年斯德哥尔摩《人类环境宣言》指出:“……保护和改善人类环境是关系到全世界各国人民的幸福和经济发展的重要问题,也是全世界各国人民的迫切希望和各国政府的责任。”关于“区别责任”,《人类环境宣言》指出:“在发展中国家中,环境问题大半是由于发展不足造成的。……因此,发展中国家必须致力于发展工作,牢记他们优先任务和保护及改善环境的必要”。1982年《内罗毕宣言》指出:“……发达国家及有能力这样做的国家,应协助受到环境失调影响的发展中国家,帮助他们处理最严重的环境问题。”《气候变化框架公约》的原则部分规定:“各缔约国应当在公平的基础上,并

试论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任原则

试论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任原则 试论国际环境法的共同但有区别责任原则 的国际责任。而另一方面发展中国家相比而言,发展起步较晚,工业化进程对全球环境的影响小,加之很多发展中国家还没有摆脱贫困的威胁,从某种意义上说发展是其的第一要义。同时发展中国家治理环境的资金技术匮乏,客观上也不具备彻底清除全球污染的实力。因此,区别责任强调,应对全球环境问题,发达国家和发展中国家的责任是有区别的,发达国家理应承担更多的、更重的责任。这也是“受益者补偿”原则的体现,同时也是维护实质正义的要求。 二、共同但有区别责任原则确立及发展 1.共同但有区别责任原则的确立。1972年在斯德哥尔摩召开的第一届人类环境大会,是国际社会就环境问题召开的第一次会议。在此次会议上通过的人类环境宣言,其内容强调和突出了利益和责任的共同性,以及具体环境和实际情况的区别,是共同但有区别责任的萌芽;1992年在巴西的里约热内卢召开的联合国环境与发展大会,是应对全球气候变化的一次会议。大会签署了《联合国气候变化框架公约》,会议提出“鉴于导致全球环境退化的各种不同因素,各国负有共同但有区别的责任”,这就正式提出了共同但有区别的责任原则,标志着共同但有区别原则的确立。根据此原则,发达国家应采取措施限制温室气体排放,同时要向发展中国家提供新的额外资金以支付发展中国家履行《公约》所需增加的费用,并采取一切可行的措施促进和方便有关技术转让的进行。 2.共同但有区别责任原则的发展。由于《联合国气候变化框架公约》没有对个别缔约方规定具体需承担的义务,也未规定实施机制,缺少法律上的约束力。因此,五年后以议定书的附属形式设定了强制排放的限制。1997年在日本京都,联合国气候变化框架公约的缔约方大会举行会议并通过了《京都议定书》,核心内容是:要求全球38个工业化程度较高的国家削减温室气体的排放量,规定了具体的减排义务。可见《京都议定书》遵循了公约确立的原则,规定了全球各国的二氧化碳排放量标准,但对发展中国家和发达国家的排放量的限制采用了双重标准,为遏制全球变暖发达国家应尽更多的义务。《京都议定书》规定的各国二氧化碳的排放标准截止到201X

论共同但有区别责任原则

论共同但有区别责任原则 姓名:杜晓静 专业:国际法学 学号:09122326

论共同但有区别责任原则 摘要:共同但有区别责任原则勾勒出了发达国家和发展中国家在承担全球环境退化责任问题上的大致轮廓,在解决国际环境问题领域有着重要的作用。但该原则在实践的过程中也面临着重重挑战。本文介绍了该原则的历史发展,分析了它的内涵和合理性,最后结合其在国际环境法中的实践,对它的适用前景提出了设想。 关键词:共同但有区别责任国际环境法合理性

共同但有区别的责任原则是指由于地球生态系统的整体性和导致环境退化的各种不同因素,以及能力上的差异,各国对保护和改善全球环境负有共同的但是又有区别的责任。关于该项原则在国际环境法中的地位,一直存在着很大的争议。但毫无疑问,该原则在解决国际环境问题领域有着重要的作用,它勾勒出了发达国家和发展中国家在承担全球环境退化责任问题上的大致轮廓。 一、共同但有区别责任原则的历史发展 最开始,在国际环境保护领域只是强调“共同责任”。如1959年《南极条约》的序言指出:“……承认为了全人类的利益,南极应永远专为和平目的而使用,不应成为国际纷争的场所和对象”;又如1967年《外层空间条约》的序言指出:“……确认为了和平目的发展,探索利用外层空间,是全人类的共同利益”;1971年《拉姆萨尔湿地公约》的序言承认,“人类同其环境的相互依存关系”。[1]直到1972年《人类环境宣言》第一次将发达国家和发展中国家的环境问题区分了开来,被认为是该原则的萌芽阶段。它指出:“在发展国家中,环境问题大半是由于发展不足造成的。……因此,发展中国家必须致力于发展工作,牢记它们优先任务和保护及改善环境的必要,”“应筹集资金维护和改善环境,其中要照顾到发展中国家的情况和特殊性,照顾到它们的请求而额外的国际技术和财政援助的需要。”[2]文件虽然没有明确使用“区别责任”,但提到了要照顾发展中国家的情况和特殊性。 而1992年里约会议提出了“鉴于导致全球环境退化的各种不同因素,各国负有共同但有区别的责任”,从而确立了这一原则。1992年的《联合国气候框架公约》把发达国家置身于承担环境问题责任的前列,强调了这一原则。在《气候变化框架公约》第3条中明确提到了共同但有区别责任,“各缔约国应当在公平的基础上,并根据它们共同但又有区别的责任和能力,为人类当代和后代的利益保护气候系统。因此,发达国家缔约方应当率先对付气候变化及其不利影响。”这段话为“共同但有区别责任”指出了法理基础。 1997年《京都议定书》更是以“共同但有区别原则”为基础制定的,在国际实践中被誉为“共同而有区别原则”的典型代表。议定书明确规定了发达国家温室气体排放削减义务,发展中国家没有削减的义务。议定书中规定,在2008-2012年间,附件一国家应将其温室气体排放量从1990年的水平减少5%,并为这些国家规定了具体的减排指标;附件二国家是附件一国家中的工业化国家,除了承担减排义务外,还要为发展中国家提供新的额外资金,并向这些国家转移用于缓解和适应气候变化的先进技术;而发展中国家仅仅承担研究、报告、宣传、培训教育等一般义务,当然也可以自愿减排。[3] 共同但有区别责任原则被确立下来,并在国际环境法中被广泛的应用,它有着丰富而深刻的内涵。 二、共同但有区别责任原则的内涵 共同但有区别原则指,各国对保护全球负有共同的但是有区别的责任,包括共同责任和区别责任两方面。共同责任指国际社会的每个成员国不论大小、强弱,都有义务去保护地球环境。这一点很多国际环境条约上都得到了体现,如《生物多样性公约》确认了生物多样性保护是人类共同的关注事项。具体而言,共同责任可以从以下几个方面加以理解: (1)各国都有义务保护本国的环境。各国有责任采取有效的措施,通过制定一系列法规严格追究国内环境损害责任。 (2)各国有责任对该国管辖内的企业或个人的活动给他国造成环境损害承担

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