中英文翻译

中英文翻译
中英文翻译

Bridge design and construction

Plan: The first step leading to the construction of a modern major bridge is a comprehensive study to determine whether a bridge is needed. If it is to be a highway bridge in the United States for example a planning study is initiated by a state bridge authority possible in cooperation with local governments or the federal government. Studies are made to estimate the amount of bridge traffic the relief of jammed traffic in nearby highway networks the effects on the regional economy and the cost of the bridge. The means for financing the project such as public taxes or sale of revenue bonds repaid by toll charges are considered. If the studying lead to a decision to go ahead with the project the land needed for the bridge and its approaches is acquired at the selected site. At the point field engineering work is started. Accurate land surveys are made. Tides flood conditions currents and other characteristics of the waterway are carefully studied. Boring samples of soil and rock are taken at possible foundation locations both on land and under the water.

Selection of bridge design: The chief factors in deciding whether a bridge will be built as a girder cantilever truss arch suspension or some other type are;(1)location for example across a river;(2)purposes for example a bridge for carrying motor vehicles;(3)span length;(4)strength of available materials;(5)cost;(6)beauty and harmony with the location.

Each type of bridge is most effective and economical only within a certain range of span lengths, as shown in the following table:

Bridge Type

Best Span Range

Feet Meters

Girder Rigid Frame

Arch

Truss Cantilever Suspension

20 to 1000

80 to 300

200 to 1000

200 to 1400

500 to 1800

1000 to 5000

6.1 to 304.8

24.4 to 91.4

61.0 to 304.8

61.0 to 426.7

152.4 to 548.6

304.8 to 1524.0

As indicated in the table there is a considerable overlap in the range of applicability of the various types. In the some cases alternative preliminary designs are prepared for several types of bridge in order to have a better basis for making the final selection.

Selection of materials: The bridge designer can select from a number of modern high-strength materials including concrete steel and a wide variety of corrosion-resistant alloy steels.

For the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge for example the designer used at least seven different kinds of alloy steel one of which has a yield strength of 50000 pounds per square inch and does not need to be painted because an oxide coating forms on its surface and inhibits corrosion. The designer also can select steel wires for suspension cables that have tensile strengths up to 250000 psi.

Concrete with compressive strengths as high as 8000 pis can now be produced for use in bridge and it can be given high durability against chipping and weathering by the addition of special chemical agents and control of the hardening process. Concrete that has been prestressed and reinforced with steel wires has a tensile strength of 250000 .

Other useful materials for bridges include aluminum alloys and wood. Modern structural aluminum alloys have yield strengths exceeding 40000. Laminated strips of wood glued together can be made into beams with strengths twice that of natural timbers glue-laminated southern pine for example can bear working stresses approaching 3000 psi.

Analysis of forces: A bridge must resist a complex combination of tension compression bending shear and torsion forces. In addition the structure most provide a safety factor as insurance against failure. The calculation of the precise nature of the individual stresses and strains in the structure called analysis is perhaps the most technically complex aspect of bridge building. The goal of analysis is to determine all of the forces that may act on each structural member.

The forces that act on bridge structural members are produced by two kinds of loads-static and dynamic. The static load-the dead weight of the bridge structure itself-is usually the greatest load. The dynamic, or live load has components including vehicles carried by the bridge wind forces and accumulations of ice and snow.

Although the total weight of the vehicles moving over a bridge at any time is

generally a small fraction of the static and dynamic load it presents special problems to the bridge designer because of the vibration and impact stresses created by moving vehicles. For example the severe impacts caused by irregularities of vehicle motion or bumps in the roadway may momentarily double the effect of the live load an bridge.

Wind exerts force on a bridge both directly by striking the bridge structure and indirectly by striking vehicles that are crossing the bridge. If the wind induces vibration as in the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge its effect may be greatly amplified. Because of this danger the bridge designer makes provisions for the strongest winds that may occur at the bridge location. Other forces that may act on the bridge such as stresses created by earthquake tremors must also be provided for.

Special attention must often be given to the design of the bridge piers since heavy loads may be imposed on them by currents waves and floating ice and debris. Occasionally a pier may even be hit by a passing ship.

Electronic computers are playing an ever-increasing role in assisting bridge designers in the analysis of forces. The use of precise model testing particularly for studying the dynamic behavior of bridges also helps designers. A scaled-down model of the bridge is constructed and various gauges to measure strains accelerations and deformations are placed on the model. The model bridge is then subjected to various scaled-down loads or dynamic conditions to find out what will happen. Wind tunnel tests may also be made to ensure that nothing like the Tacoma Narrows Bridge failure can occur. With modern technological aids there is much less chance of bridge failure than in the past.

Construction the foundations: Construction starts with the foundations which may cost almost as much as the superstructure. Foundations built in water usually present the greatest difficulties. One of the older methods which is still used in shallow waters is to erect cofferdams similar to the ring of closely spaced piles that the Romans used.

For constructing foundations in deep water caissons have long been used. The caisson which is a huge box closed on all sides except the bottom is lowered onto the river bed Workers inside the caisson which is filled with compressed air to keep out the water dig deeper and deeper and the caisson sinks as the digging proceeds. When a

suitable depth is reached the caisson is filled with concrete and becomes part of the foundation itself.

Another deep-water method less hazardous and less costly than the caisson method uses steel or concrete piles. With modern pile drivers long heavy piles can be driven even in deep water. The piles can be cut off and capped either above the water level or below it. If they are capped below the water level a prefabricated hollow pier case is floated out to the site sunk on the pile and then filled with concrete to form the pier.

Erecting the superstructure: After all piers and abutments are in place the erection of the superstructure begins. The method of construction used depends largely on the type of bridge being built. There are six construction methods false work flotation cantilevering sliding direct lifting and suspension.

In false work construction mainly used in building concrete arch bridges metal or wood supports are built temporarily to support the erection. A great deal of ingenuity is often required just to erect the false work especially for structures over swift rivers or deep canyons. Temporary piles and trestles are commonly used in wide shallow rivers.

In the floatation method mainly used in building long bridges large bridge sections are prefabricated on shore and floated out on barges to he bridge site. The sections are then hoisted into place either by floating derricks or by winches placed on previously constructed selections of the bridge.

The cantilevering technique is used not only for cantilever bridges but also for steel arch bridges. Construction starts at an abutment and extends toward the center piece.

Silding cinstruction is used only rarely. In this method a prefabricated unit, such as a trusses erected on shore and slid out over a temporary or permanent support until it comes to rest on another support.

In the direct lifting method mainly used for light short-span highway bridges a prefabricated bridge unit is lifted by a hoist and swung directly onto the bridge supports.

In the construction of suspension bridges the cables are strung between the bridge towers and used as a support for the bridge deck. The deck erection starts at the ends of the bridge and progresses toward the center A travelling derrick moving on the completed part of the deck is used to handle heavy material Temporary suspension cables are occasionally used in the construction of other types of bridges to convey

material across the span .

In all methods of construction it is necessary to determine the stresses and deformations at every stage of construction. Stresses in a partly completed bridge---constructed by the cantilever method—can exceed the stresses in a completed bridge because of the totally different conditions of support and loading.

When the roadway is surfaced and signs, lighting, guardrails, and other accessories are installed, the bridges is ready for use.

桥的设计与构造

规划现代重要的桥梁建造的第一步是广泛地研究确定桥梁的必要性。比如:如果是高速公路桥,在美国则是由州桥管理局研究规划并确定,在程序上会同当地的政府或联邦政府一起,对主要公路桥梁进行评估研究。如在接近高速公路网上减少交通堵塞,对当地经济的影响和桥的造价。这就决定了工程的投资方式,如公众收费,发行债券或支付过桥费都被考虑进来。如果研究认为其可行信,那么桥选址和占地问题将着手处理。在这一点上,现场测绘工作开始进行,做好精确的实地测量;潮汐,洪水因素,水流和水路上的其他的特征都要仔细研究,在陆地和水下的泥土和岩石的钻孔取样都尽可能地在基础处进行。

桥梁设计的选择决定把桥建成梁,悬臂,桁架,拱,悬索或其他类型结构的主要因素是:(1)地点,如跨越河流;(2)目的,如建桥为了方便交通;(3)跨度;(4)可用的材料;(5)花费;(6)美观和和谐性。

在一定范围的跨度内,每种结构的都有最大的作用和经济。如下表所示:

桥的类型最佳跨度

英尺米

梁桥20到1000 6.1到304.8

刚架桥80到300 24.4到91.4

拱桥200到1000 61.0到304.8

桁架桥200到1400 61.0到426.7

悬臂桥500到1800 152.4到548.6

悬索桥1000到5000 304.8到1524.0

上表表明了许多类型的适用性有相当多的重叠。在一些实例中,在不同的初步设计中,用来比较不同类型的桥结构是为了在最后有最好的选择。

材料的选择桥梁设计者能选用大量的现代高强材料,包括混凝土,钢筋,和多种耐腐蚀的合金。

拿Varian-Narrows大桥来说,设计者使用了七种不同的合金钢,其中之一的合金的屈服强度为50000英镑每平方英寸(3115kg/c㎡),而且不需要油漆保护,因为有一种氧化膜覆盖在它的表面而防止腐蚀。设计者还选用钢丝绳作为缆绳,它的抗拉强度超过250000英镑每平方英寸(17577 kg/c㎡)

抗压强度高达8000英镑每平方英尺(562.5kg/c㎡)的混凝土现在被生产用作桥梁工程,而且它在增加特殊化学物质后具有很高的抗脆裂性能和抗风化性能,这种混凝土被用作预应力混凝土,而且其加强了钢丝绳的抗拉强度,其强度达到250000英镑每平方英寸(17577 kg/c㎡)

桥梁的其它使用材料还铝合金和木材:现在的铝合金的屈服强度超过了40000每平方英寸(2818 kg/c㎡)。把木材碾成细长的薄片,然后用胶水粘在一起而做成的梁是自然木材强度的二倍。例如用南部松树而胶结的梁能承受的工作应力达到了3000英镑每英寸(210.9kg/c㎡)。

应力分析一座桥要抵抗一系列的合力,如拉力,压力,剪力和扭力。另外,结构还需要一定的安全储备以保不足。对结构进行精确计算各种单独的压力和拉力,这就叫应力分析。这或许是桥梁建设中最复杂的技术。应力分析的目的是为了确定作用在结构上的里的数量。

作用在桥梁结构的应力都可以分为二类荷载:动荷载和静荷载。静荷载——即桥结构本身不变的重量——它往往也是最大的荷载。动荷载或静荷载有很多,包括桥面上的机动车,风荷载,和积冰积雪荷载。

虽然随时在桥面上移动的机动车的总重量相当于静荷载和动荷载来说是一个很少的部分,而对设计者来说,因为机动车辆产生的振动和冲击压力而会出现特殊问题。例如:在路面上机动车的不规则的运动或碰撞对桥面产生短暂而影响加倍的活荷载而导致严重的影响。

风在桥上的施加的力即直接敲打桥结构又间接的敲打在桥面上的通行的车辆。如果出现空气弹性振动,在这种情况下的Tacoma Narrows大桥的风作用被大大地增大,由于这种危险的存在,桥的设计者在桥址必须知道所能发生的最大的风。还有其它的力作用在桥上,如:地震产生的压力也必须注意。

对桥墩的设计通要给予特殊的关注,因为桥墩承担水流,浮冰和漂浮物而产生的重荷,桥墩通常还有被船撞击的可能。

电脑在应力分析上协助桥梁设计者,并扮演一个很重要的角色。用一个精确的模型试验,尤其对桥的动力的活动状态的研究也可以帮助设计者。一个小比例的桥模结构中,对桥模各处的应力,加速度和变形都可以进行精确测量。桥模这时可以承受同样比例的荷载和动力条件来分析桥的变化。风洞试验也可以确保不再发生Tacoma Narrows大桥的失败。在现代技术的帮助下,桥梁事故出现的机会将大大少于以前。

建筑基础建筑物都是从基础开始的,基础的花费几乎大大超过上层建筑。水下基础通常会遇到很大的困难,有个古老的方法常被用于浅水中,即在小范围内垂直围堰而建桥墩。罗马人常用这种方法。

在深水中建基础一般用沉箱法。沉箱是一个底部开口其余封闭的大盒子而沉入河床上,工人们在为挡水而充满压缩空气的沉箱里,越挖越深,沉箱也跟着下沉。当达到合适的深度后在箱内填入混泥土而成为基础。

在深水中建基础的另一种方法比沉箱法更安全和更低的成本,用于钢或混凝土桥墩。在现代的打桩工具下把重桩打入深水中,桩可以在水面或水下截断或做成桩帽。如在水下把它们做成桩帽,可把一根预制空心桩浮运到做成承台桩的那一点,然后从空心桩套内灌入混泥土。

建设上层建筑当所有的桩和支柱建好后,则上部结构开始建筑。结构的建设方法有很多种类,共有六类建造方法:脚手架,浮运,悬臂,滑移,直升和悬挂法。

在用脚手架建造时,主要用来建混凝土拱桥。金属或木支撑都是临时搭设为竖直支撑。脚手架都是根据需要而灵活搭建的。尤其结构在激流回深谷上时,临时桥墩和站桥一般使用在宽而浅的河上。

浮运法主要用来建很长的桥梁。主桥部分是在河岸预制的,然后用驳船浮移到桥梁位置。用浮吊起重机或卷扬机把该部分精确吊到大桥的建设部位。

悬臂技术不仅用于悬臂桥中,也用于刚拱桥上,先建成一个桥台,然后一步步延伸到中央,起重机和吊车可以完成沉重物在结构上的操作。

滑移法建筑很少用到。这种方法,如一个预制构件或一个组合结构在竖立的支柱上,滑过临时或永久性的支撑,直到它进入安装的另一个支撑。

直升法主要用于轻质小跨度的公路桥。每一个预制桥单元被垂直悬起并旋转到桥梁支撑点上。

在由悬挂法建设的桥梁中,一串缆绳连接两边的桥头堡,被用作桥面支撑点。开始的桥面施工却在在桥梁施工的最后,而且是由两端向中央发展。移动吊车在已完成的桥面上移动,用来运送重材,悬挂钢缆,有时在其他类型的桥梁中被用来在全跨上运输材料。

所有的建筑方法在施工阶段都需要验算应力和变形,在用悬臂梁法施工的桥梁中,因为完全不同的支撑和荷载条件,未竣工桥梁内的应力可能会超过已竣工桥梁内的应力。

当公路的铺装,标志,灯光,护栏和附属设施完成后,桥梁就准备投入使用了。

spss软件的菜单及所有单词中英文翻译大全

SPSS 统计软件的主菜单及子菜单

spss软件的中英文翻译 Absolute deviation, 绝对离差 Absolute number, 绝对数 Absolute residuals, 绝对残差 Acceleration array, 加速度立体阵 Acceleration in an arbitrary direction, 任意方向上的加速度Acceleration normal, 法向加速度 Acceleration space dimension, 加速度空间的维数Acceleration tangential, 切向加速度 Acceleration vector, 加速度向量 Acceptable hypothesis, 可接受假设 Accumulation, 累积 Accuracy, 准确度 Actual frequency, 实际频数 Adaptive estimator, 自适应估计量 Addition, 相加 Addition theorem, 加法定理 Additivity, 可加性 Adjusted rate, 调整率 Adjusted value, 校正值 Admissible error, 容许误差 Aggregation, 聚集性 Alternative hypothesis, 备择假设 Among groups, 组间 Amounts, 总量 Analysis of correlation, 相关分析 Analysis of covariance, 协方差分析 Analysis of regression, 回归分析 Analysis of time series, 时间序列分析 Analysis of variance, 方差分析 Angular transformation, 角转换 ANOVA (analysis of variance), 方差分析 ANOVA Models, 方差分析模型 Arcing, 弧/弧旋 Arcsine transformation, 反正弦变换 Area under the curve, 曲线面积 AREG , 评估从一个时间点到下一个时间点回归相关时的误差ARIMA, 季节和非季节性单变量模型的极大似然估计 Arithmetic grid paper, 算术格纸 Arithmetic mean, 算术平均数

中英文对照版合同翻译样本

1.Sales Agreement The agreement, (is) made in Beijing this eighth day of August 1993 by ABC Trading Co., Ltd., a Chinese Corporation having its registered office at Beijing, the People’ Repubic of China (hereinafter called “Seller”) and International Tradi ng Co., Ltd., a New York Corporation having its registered office at New York, N.Y., U.S.A. (hereinafter called “Buyer”). 2.WITNESSETH WHEREAS, Seller is engaged in dealing of (product) and desires to sell (product)to Buyer, and WHEREAS, Buyer desires to purchase(product) from Sellers, Now, THEREFORE, it is agreed as follows: 3.Export Contract This Contract is entered into this 5th day of August 1993 between ABC and Trading Co., Ltd. (hereinafter called “Seller”) who agrees to sell, and XYZ Trading Co., Ltd. (hereinafter called “Buyer”) who agrees to buy the following goods on the following terms and condition. 4.Non-Governmental Trading Agreement No. __This Agreement was made on the_day of_19_, BETWEEN _ (hereinafter referred to as the Seller) as the one Side and _ (hereinafter referred to as the Buyer) as the one other Side. WHEREAS, the Seller has agreed to sell and the buyer has agreed to buy _ (hereinafter referred to as the Goods ) the quantity, specification, and price of which are provided in Schedule A. IT IS HEREBY AGREED AS FOLLOWS: 5.Contract For Joint-Operation Enterprise __ COMPANY LTD., a company duly organized under the Law of __ and having its registered office at (hereinafter called “Party A”) AND __ COMPANY LTD., a company duly organized under the Law of __ and having its registere d office at (hereinafter called “Party B”) Party A and Party B (hereinafter referred to as the “Parties”) agree to jointly form a Co-operation Venture Company (hereinafter referred to as the “CVC”) in accordance with “the Laws of the People’s Republic of C hina on Joint Ventures Using Chinese and Foreign Investment” and the “Regulations for the Implementation of the Laws of the People’s Republic of China on Joint Ventures Using Chinese and Foreign Investment” and other applicable laws and regulations. 6.MODEL CONTRACT Contract No. Date: Seller: Signed at: Address: Cable Address: Buyer: Address: Cable Address: The Seller and the Buyer have agreed to conclude the following transactions according to the terms and conditions stipulated below: https://www.360docs.net/doc/7811309098.html, of Commodity: 2.Specifications: 3.Quantity: 4.Unit Price: 5.Total Price: U.S.$: 6.Packing: 7.Time of Shipment: days after receipt of L/C. 8.Loading Port & Destination Port: From via to . 9.Insurance:

英汉汉英翻译学习 译后感

至今为止,已经学了一个学期的翻译基础。虽说未涉及汉译英的学习,但从过去这一学期对英译汉理论与实践的学习,我深知翻译并非一件容易的事。对我来说,学好翻译这门课程并将其运用到实践中去,任重而道远。 在未上翻译课之前,每每听人提及翻译,以为就只是单纯的两种语言的转换;谁知经过一个学期的翻译课学习,才知道自己竟是大错特错了。当代英国翻译理论家纽马克的翻译理论及其语言六大功能(表达功能、信息功能、祈使功能、人际功能、审美功能、元语言功能),我国翻译家严复的“信、达、雅”三大翻译标准等,让我更进一步了解什么是翻译。 对于我们初学者来说,在进行翻译活动时,除了要遵循翻译的两大原则(忠实、通顺)外,还要注意直译与意译、异化与归化等翻译技巧的运用。否则,翻译时,容易出现“翻译腔”。如;And so you shall be my darling----when l tell you! 译文一:当我告诉你的时候——我的宝贝,你会知道的。译文二:那你等着吧——等到我告诉了你,你就懂得了!这两种翻译中,第一种机械地模仿原文,不知变通,是典型的“翻译腔”。而第二种摆脱了原文的结构束缚,用符合目的语的语言表达形式再现了原文的意义和精神。 此外,对一些翻译技巧(如:词类转换法、重复法、正反反正翻译法、抽象与具体转换法、抽词拆译法、增词语省略法、物称人称转化法、形合意合转换法、视点转换法等)的学习及反复练习,也让我在学习的同时发现并总结出一些翻译时常出现的问题。如:的、地、得的正确使用(美丽的太阳花、吃力地行走、高兴得手舞足蹈);量词的正确使用(一只小熊、一头大熊、一个熊妈妈);标点符号的正确使用(注意句子的停顿);“so·····that”不能译成“如此·····以至于”可译成“那样·····因此or所以”;“when·····”不能译成“当······时”;人的mate译成“伙伴”,动物的mate译成“配偶”,而人的“配偶”是spouse;“go down the wind”译成顺着风走,“go up the wind”译成逆着风走;定语从句的译法:分片——逐个译出——理解大意——调整语序。 另外,长句的翻译也是一大难点。像顺序法、分译法、逆序法、综合法等长句翻译方法都可用于翻译中,才能译出更好的译文。 与汉语习惯不同,在英语中,为了避免重复,通常用同义词、近义词代替前文出现过的词。同时,英语中通常用大量的连词,是句子更紧凑,而汉语恰恰相反。因此,在英译汉时,要尽量避免将关联词“和、所以、因此、而且····”翻译出来。 我深知自己基础比较薄弱,因而在学习时也比较吃力,但我不会因此而自暴自弃,相反,我会加倍努力,尽自己最大的努力学好翻译这门课程。

中英文对照版合同翻译样本

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