《现代英语词汇学》(新版)复习

英语词汇学复习的内容：

.一、考试题形式分为：

Ⅰ.选择题(20分)：

完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。1-9cahpters

Ⅱ.填空（30分）：

考定义概念。1-10chapters

Ⅲ.（20分）习语英译汉：

教材中汉语部分idioms: 习语的特点

Ⅳ.(10分) 论述题：

第三章为主

Ⅴ. 树形图（依据上下义关系作图）(20分)：

第二、六章

二、教材内容简介

陆国强编著：《现代英语词汇学》（新版），上海外语教育出版社，2003年7月

第一章词的概述；

第二章词的结构和词的构成方式；

第三章词的理据；

第四章词的语义特征；

第五章词义的变化；

第六章词的语义分类；

第七章词的联想与搭配；

第八章英语习语；

第九章美国英语；

第十章词的使用和理解；

第十一章词汇衔接；

第十二章词汇衔接和语篇连贯。

教学内容是: 词形结构构词法, 词法特点及分类, 词义转换, 英文习语, 美式英语, 词汇及文学风格, 英语词汇学, 词汇学研究方法及其新的发展方向等方面的理论与研究动态。

《现代英语词汇学教材》以现代语言理论为指导，以英语词汇为研究对象。主要内容有单词的结构、构词法、单词的意义及词义关系、英语词汇的构成、词义的历史演变、成语及词典知识。本课程可以使学生比较系统地掌握英语词汇的知识，比较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展的趋势和所出现的现象作出分析和解释，提高运用英语的能力。本课程特别强调和重视研究生广泛阅读英语词汇学、语言学、语义学、词源学方面的书籍，以教师精讲、学生宽学为目的。

本课程的教学目的, 在于指导学生用现代语义学和语法学的有关理论分析研究现代英语词汇现象, 揭示现代英语词汇规律。要求学生通过英汉词汇的对比研究, 探讨英语词汇教学规律, 指导英语语言实践, 不断提高对现代英语词汇的理解, 应用和研究能力。

主要参考书

汪榕培，《英语词汇学研究》，上海外语教育出版社，2000年4月第一版

王文斌，《英语词汇语义学》，浙江教育出版社，2001年6月第一版

汪榕培、卢晓娟编著：《英语词汇学教程》，上海外语教育出版社，1997年10月第1版.

汪榕培主编：《英语词汇学高级教程》，上海外语教育出版社，2002年11月

张韵斐:《英语词汇学》北京师范大学出版社.

汪榕培《英语词汇学教程读本》上海外语教育出版社.

1. Carter, R. (1987), V ocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives. London: Allen & Unwin.

2. Carter, R. & M. McCarthy, (1988), V ocabluary and Language Teaching. Harlow; Longman.

教学手段：采用多媒体教学

本课程要求学生能够比较全面、比较系统地了解现代英语词汇学这一领域的一些最主要、最有影响的语言学理论，能够运用词汇学理论去分析和解决词汇学习中的一些问题。通过学习，学生应该掌握以下具体方面的知识。

三、复习内容

Introduction 部分

Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography

研究lexicology 的两大方法:

1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学

2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学

e.g. wife 纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？Woman 的词义的变化是Narrowing or specialization

第一章词的概述；

1．识记：词的定义

2．声音与意义

识记：声音与意义的关系

3．声音与拼写

识记：读音与拼写不一致的原因

4．词汇

识记词汇的含义

5．词汇的分类

识记：词汇的分类原则；基本词汇的特点；四类外来语词的特点。

领会：基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性

What is word ?

词具有哪些特点？

词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;

2) A sound unity or a given sound ;

3) a unit of meaning;

4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.

以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

词的分类（classification of a word）

词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词？

1) simple words 2) complex words

单音节词例子：

e.g. Man and fine are simple

多音节词例子：

e.g. Management, misfortune, blackmail

management 可以次划分为manage 和-ment

misfortune 可以次划分为mis- 和fortune

blackmail 次划分为black 和mail

What is the relationship between sound and meaning?

1)There is …no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. cat

2)The relationship between them is conventional.

3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. What is relationship between sound and form?

1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.

2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English

3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.

What are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between sound and form?

1) The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.

2) Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.

3) A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.

4) Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.

要记住以上四句话中的关键词：

1) influenced by Romans

2) Pronunciation changed

3) early scribes

4) borrowing

你能不能举出外来语对英语发音,拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？

e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr), kimono (Jap)

外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是‘sound and form ’不一致。

What is vocabulary?

V ocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but

it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.

V ocabulary also refers to all the words of a given dialect, given book,

a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

Classification of Words (本课的一个重点)

What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics?

Three criteria :

1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin

By use of frequency 可划分为：

1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary

By notion 可划分为：1）Content word 2) Functional word

Content words are also known as notional words . (Content words 的别称) Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words. ( Functional words 的别称)

Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability According to Stuart Robertson ,et al (1957),* the nine functional words , namely ,and , be , have , it , of , the , to , will ,you

What are the characteristics of basic word stock?

1) All national character

2) Stability

3) Productivity

4) Polysemy

5) Collocability

要把握住‘All national character’的词,就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通的词稳定性是基本词的一个很大特点，请你举例说明？

e.g. man, woman , fire, water …

e.g. machine, vide o, telephone …

e.g. bow, chariot , knight

Stability is relative, not absolute.

根据词的use frequency 划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作None basic vocabulary, 非基本词有几大特点？或者是几大分类？

1) Terminology e.g. sonata, algebra

2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line ( Jargon )

3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear ( Slang )

4) Argot e.g. persuader

5) Dialectal words e.g. station ( AusE = ranch ) bluid ( ScotE= blood)

6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)

7) Neologisms e.g. email ( Neologisms )

beaver 是girl 的slang 表达方式，但是二者之间存在着Stylistic difference Which constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary, content

words or functional words ?

Answer : Content words

What is native words?

Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native

words and borrowed words.

(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by

the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as

Anglo-Saxon words.

(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core

of the language

什么叫borrowed words? Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.

(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary

(3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.

什么叫Denizens?

Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).

‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L),

shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier

(F), pork from porc (F).

什么叫Translation-loans ?

Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as … long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)

什么叫Semantic-loans ?

words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ?joy?and …music ?, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.

6．英语词汇的形成与发展

1)印欧语系的谱系关系

a)识记：印欧语系的主要分支以及分支的主要现代语言。

2)英语词汇发展的历史回顾

a)识记：英语词汇发展的三个历史阶段：古英语词汇、中古英语词汇和现

代英语词汇及其特点。

3)当代英语词汇发展的状况

a)识记：当代英语词汇发展的现状。

b)领会：词汇发展的主要原因。

4)词汇发展的方式

识记：英语词汇发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新义、借用外来语词。

领会：各种方式在现代英语词汇发展中的地位和作用

The development of the English vocabulary

The Indo-European Language Family

It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put it 5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar . (重点：语系划分的标准）What is the criteria to divide language families ?

The answer : 1. the basis of similarities in their basic word stock 2. grammar

(重点)The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as(选择题内容：)

Prussian, Lithuanian , Polish ,Czech, Bulgarian ,Slovenian and Russian.

‘Indo-European’两大分支：

1.Eastern set

2.Western set

Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian

Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.

In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.

Celtic ：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton

The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Roumanian all belong to the Italic.The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages:

Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch ,Flemish and English. With Vikings? invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the Eng lish language.

It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern English.

Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modern German.

重点句: Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England

古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于(scripts )

古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了( early scripts)

Sound and form 真正达到统一是在什么时期？

.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )

如果从词汇变化的角度而言，Modern English 又可以细划分为early period , modern period.

*现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期（重要的选择或填空内容）Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance

Modern English period 有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period

现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还有另外一个原因是(colonization)

The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from

(Colonization )

The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the

present analytic language ( 重要选择或填空内容)

Growth of Present-day English V ocabulary

Three main sources of new words :

1)The rapid development of modern science and technology

2)Social, economic and political changes;

3)The influence of other cultures and language

Modes of V ocabulary Development

1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing

2)Semantic change （还包括外来词的Semantic loans ）

Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer

外来词可以被称作borrowed words , 因此又可以被称作.

重点句：borrowed words are also known as loaned words .

恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色

Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.

英语从synthetic language 发展到present analytical language 是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？

答案：Modern English period

文艺复兴时期，恰逢英语发展的哪个阶段?

答案：Early Modern English period

在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？

French, Latin, English in Middle English period

easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？

答案：Middle English , Dutch

在英语发展的某一个阶段，有一种语言进入英语，它一共带来了2500 个词汇，这种语言是什么？

答案：Dutch

据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少?

答案：50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )

第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu, 这些词属于英语词汇发展的Present - day English V ocabulary

注意：第二章出大题的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。

Old English 和Middle English 最大的striking distinction 存在于哪一个方面?

答案：Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.

文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了复兴，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响? 答案：Greek , Roman culture

某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段?

答案：Modern English

十六世纪，有一种新工业出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响，这是哪一种industry?

答案：Printing

这导致sound and form 出现concord , 出现standardization.

第二章词的结构和词的构成方式；

词的结构

1．词素morpheme

识记：词素的概念

2．词素变体

识记：词素变体的概念

3．词素的分类

领会：词素、自由词素、自由词根、黏附词素、黏附词根、词缀、派生词缀、屈折词缀、前缀和后缀之间的相互关系。

4．词根和词干

领会：词根和词干的区别

运用：运用本章所学的知识分析英语词的结构。

The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)

The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)

In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)

Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation)

名词解释:

Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words, the morphemes is ?the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs : The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,

e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish

简答题：what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)

答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes

Free morphemes :

1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.

2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.

3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root

4) free morphemes are free roots.

bound morphemes:

1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound..

2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.

3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix

affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.

Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.

Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words.

2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.

root : 1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word

3) a ?root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed?

stem : 1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.

2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.

3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

问题：Stem 和root 有一个最大的区别在哪里? (答案：a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.

问题：请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 请加以理论的分析?

Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,

Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains

Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .

问题：分析下面一句话: He is much more cleverer than any other one in the village, too heads are better than one.

请从构词角度分析以上的例子,

cleverer , better

cleverer (-er : inflectional affixes )

better ( good , well 的特殊变化) It is allomorph of good and well.

Language segment

English language grammatically can be segmented into five ranks:

a. the sentence

b. the clause

c. the phrase

d. the word

e. the morpheme

Morphemes

The minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech.

Fall into two categories:

1) Free morphemes

2) Bound morphemes

Free morphemes

A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech.

Eg:man,earth,wind,car,anger,noon

Free morphemes are free roots

Bound morphemes

Mostly affixes. Cannot stand by itself. Only exist as:

1) Inflectional affixes

2) Derivational affixes

1.Inflectional affixes

Attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships

Number small and stable

Easiest to learn

2.Derivational affixes

To create new words

1) prefixes (before the word)

2) suffixes (after the word)

词的构成方式

1．词缀法

识记：词缀法、前缀法、后缀法的概念。前后缀的特点。

运用：能用前缀和后缀构词

2．复合法

识记：复合法的概念

领会：复合词与自由词组的区别。

运用：能用该构词方法构词

3．转类法

识记：转类法的概念。短语动词转名词的两种方法。形容词转名词中的完全转类和部分转类。

领会：名词、动词、形容词三类词互相转类后的语义特色

运用：能用该构词方法构词

4．拼缀法

识记：拼缀法的概念以及构成模式

运用：能在阅读中辨认和理解拼缀词。

5．截短法

识记：截短法的概念和构成模式

运用：能辨认和正确使用截短词

6．首字母缩略法

识记：首字母缩略法的概念和构成方法。

领会：两种首字母缩略词的区别。

运用：能辨认和正确运用缩略词。

7．逆生法

识记：逆生法的概念。逆生法的构成方法和文体特色。

运用：能正确运用逆生词。

8．专用名词普通化

识记：转化为普通词的主要集中专用名词，以及转化的主要方式。

领会：由专用名词转化的普通词的形式与意义之间的联系。它们的修辞特色问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?

答案：有七种:

1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending

有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion

问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?

答案：Extension

问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?

答案：Narrowing

问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？

答案：Affixation is also known as derivation

Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation

要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:

a-, non, ir : negative prefixes

de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes )

mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes

super , sur-, extra ：prefixes of degree or size

anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude

trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes

fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order

bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes

pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes

suffixation :

1. Noun suffixes

1) Denominal nouns

2) Deverbal nouns

3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness,

4) Noun and adjective suffixes

注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释.

要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open

简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?

What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?

答案：

1) phonetic features

2) Semantic features

3) Grammatical features

最常见的三种词性: 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds

问：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?

在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?

动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?

*名词解释:Conversion

Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.

Functional shift = conversion

Zero-derivation ( 选择或填空要点)

Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion

问题：形容词转为动词分为哪两类？

答案：由Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive

简答题: 形容词变动词的三种类别

问题：请你举出由conjunction 变为noun 的一个例子?

答案：Ifs and buts blending are also called blends or portmanteau words ( 选择或填空要点)

问题：‘blending’分为哪四类合成词？

1. head + tail

2. head + head

3. head + word

4. word + tail

问题: 绝大多数blending 都是什么词性?

答案：nouns

The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.

问题：截短法clipping 分为哪四类？

答案：There are four common types of clipping :

1) Front clipping

2) Back clipping

3) Front and back clipping

4) Phrase clipping

要注意clipping 的例子

有一个特殊变化：fridge ( refrigerator 截短之后在i, g 中间加一个d ) ,

还有拼写发生变化，比如说：coke ( coca cola)

问题：什么是acronymy？

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of neames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy 包含两类:

1) initialisms (不发音) e.g. BBC, VOA, TB

2) acronyms (形成新的发音) e.g. CORE, TEFL

`Words from proper names 有四大类:

1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people

2. Names of places e.g. champagne, rugby

3. Names of books e.g. utopia

4. Tradenames e.g. cabal

问题：以下的词采用哪种构词法？

e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (先有诊断的名词,后有了诊断的动词, 这种构词被称作) backformation

bloomers (它的构词法满足哪一种词法): 属于Words from proper names 中的Names of people

VJ-day :(这种构词法是由哪一种构成的)属于Initialisms 中的Acronyms

Pop: (采用哪一种构词法构成的) : clipping

Sitcom : blending

FORTRAN : head + head

Bath (名词) ----- bathe ( 动词)

Bath 和bathe 存在一种什么关系? ( Conversion )

重点句：Conversion is also known as functional shift.

问题：Noun + v-ing, 这类词构成的词是什么词？

答案：compounding

问题：Record-breaking , 它是属于复合法中的哪一种？

答案：Adjectives compounds

问题：请说出Adjectives compounds 中多产性强的有几类？

答案：有三类

1) n + v-ing

2) n + a

3) n + v-ed

问题：up-bringing 是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？

答案：noun compounds (adv + v-ing )

问题：复合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么?

答案：区别也就是复合词的特点:

1) Phonetic features

2) Semantic features

3) Grammatical features

问题：red meat, green horn,它们是复合词的哪一个特点构成的词?

答案：Semantic features (也就是从构词上推不出它的涵义）

问题：Compounding又被称作什么法？

答案：composition

问题：由compounding 或composition 构成的词被称作什么？

答案：compounds

问题：复合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？

答案：分为三类：solid, hyphenated, open

solid : blackail , blackmarket

hyphenated: brother-in-law,

open : green horn , green hand

问题：当形容词转为动词时分为几类：Adjectives to verbs

答案：有三类：

1) Both transitive and intransitive

2) Only transitive

3) Only intransitive

问题：由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性?

答案：verb to noun e.g. catch

问题：形容词可不可以转类，转成名词分为几个类别?

答案：分为两类：

1) full conversion e.g. black , white

2) partial conversion e.g. the rich , the poor

问题：名词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？

答案：1) Concrete 2) abstract

e.g. host : （可加-ess 变成具体名词）

friend : (加-ship 可变成抽象名词）

问题：(只作了解) A word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )

答案：true ( 可从word 的四个特点看出）

问题：Most loaned words are borrowed from foreign languages without any change in sound and spelling. （true or false).

答案：true

外来词分为四类：

1) Denizens

e.g. cup from cuppa , port form portus

2) Aliens

e.g. garage , decor

3) Translation -loans

e.g. long time no see

4) Semantic- loans.

e.g. dream

判断对错题：

1．Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true or false )

答案：true

2．The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and conventional.

(true or false ).

答案：true

3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different antonyms .(true or false)

答案：true

4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes. (true or false )

答题：false

重点句：A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.

E.g. fast （fast 在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）

选择题：

Chinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ? .

a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language

答案：C）mother language ( 不存在的一种说法)

问题：以下的哪一个词is not an expression used by American?

A) tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress

答案：tube ( 只有英国人把地铁叫tube , 美国人把它叫作subway, underground ) 问题：‘smog’它是‘smoke , fog’合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？

A) clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation

答案：C ) blending

问题：以下的词哪些属于：A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.

e.g. goldmine (compound word )

bike ( shortened form )

process (derived word : cess 是一个不可分割的bound root，pro 它是一个前缀) supermarket ( derived word )

language ( simple word )

driver ( derived word )

dorm ( shortened form, clipping )

modernize ( derivation )

blackboard ( compound )

bus ( shortened form ) (omnibus )

What is the difference between content words and functional words, illustrate your point with examples ?

注意：答题时先答名词解释，再加以例子说明。

(复习要考虑的题)What is the difference between denotative meaning and connotative meaning?

(论述题) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary?

答题时先答名词解释basic word stock 再答五大特点并配以例子加以说明。

(关键答好第一个特点:‘All national character ，它又分为五个特点)

Means of word-building

1)affixation 30-40%

2)compounding 28-30%

3)conversion 26%

4)shortening 8-10%

5)blending 1-5%

Affixation

Two subclasses:

1) prefixation

2) suffixation

1.Prefixation( 9 groups )

1)negative prefixes:

dis-, in-, il, ir, non-, un-

Eg. Disloyal,injustice,illegal,irresistible,non-smoker,unwilling

2)reversative prefixes: de-,dis,un,

Eg. Decompose,disunite,unwrap

3)pejorative prefixes:mal-,mis,pseudo-

Eg.maltreat,mistrust,pseudo-friend

4)degree or size:extra-,micro-,mini-,over-,sub-,super-,under-

Eg.extra-strong,microsoft,miniskirt,overweight,subway,superman, underdeveloped

5)orientation and attitude: anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-

Eg. anti-government, contraflow, counteract, pro-student,

6)locative: extra-, inter-, intra-, tele-, trans-

Eg.extraordinary,forehead,inter-city,intra-party,telecommunicate,

trans-world

7)time and order: ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re-

Eg.ex-president,foretell,post-war,pre-prepared,reconsider

8)number:bi-,multi-(poly-),semi-(hemi-),tri-,uni-(mono-)

Eg.bilingual,multi-purpose,polysyllable,semi-naked,hemisphere,tricycle,

uniform,monologue

9)miscellaneous:auto-,pan-,vice-

Eg.automobile,pan-European,vice-chairman

2.Suffixation( 4 groups )

1.Noun suffixes

1) Denominal nouns

a.Concrete:-eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-let,-ster

Eg.engineer,teenager,hostess,cigarette,booklet,gangster

b.Abstract:-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,ism,-ship

Eg.officialdom,slavery,adulthood,terrorism,friend-ship

2) Deverbal nouns

a.Denoting people:-ant,-ee,-ent,-er(or)

https://www.360docs.net/doc/8c4790532.html,rmant,trainee,respondent,dependent

b.Denoting action,result,process,state:

-ance,-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,),-nce,-ment,-ing

Eg.attendance,protection,decision,persistence,savings,statement

3)De-adjective nouns:-ity,-ness,

Eg.popularity,largeness

2.Adjective suffixes

1) Denominal suffixes:-ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y

Eg.simple-minded,successful,childish,priceless,nameless,girl-like,friendly,smo ky,bloody

2) Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive

Eg.washable,active

3.Adverb suffixes:-ly,-ward(s),-wise

Eg.calmly,naturally,homewards,clockwise

4.Verb suffixes:-ate,-en,-fy,-ify,-ize(-ise)

Eg.originate,darken,heighten,strengthen,solidify,beautify,modernize

词素构词综合练习：

问题：Which of the following words is not formed through clipping?

A) dorm B) Motel C) gent D) zoo

答案：Motel: (blending)

问题：Old English has vocabulary of about how many words ?

答案：50,000 to 60,000

问题：词素分为自由词素和粘着词素，自由词素又被称作自由词根，粘着词素分为哪两类？

答案：粘着词素分为：Bound root 和affixes

选择题或填空：

Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words in the Middle English Period. (Dutch )

A word is a symbol that

B .

A ) is used by same community

B) represents something else in the world

C) both simple and complex in nature

D) Show different ideas in different sounds

Pronouns and numerals enjoy nationwide use and stability, but has limited Productivity

问题：以下的这些词是粘着词素吗，以下的这些词是什么样的构词法？

1) heart and soul ( Adverbial in nature )

2) father - male parent ( conceptual meaning )

3) City-bred ( noun + v-ed )

4) Lip-reading - lip read (backformation )

5) headache (compound n + v )

6) antecedent ( 下划线的这一部分是什么：bound morphemes )

7) preview ( prefix : 前缀)

8) receive ( bound root )

9) called ( inflectional affixes )

第三章词的理据；

识记：拟声理据、形态理据、语义理据、词源理据。

领会：词义的理据与“约定俗成”的关系。

第四章词的语义特征；

1)What is componential analysis? (p318)

2)On what basis are semantic features established?

3)What are the difference between dynamic verbs and stative verbs? (320-321)

4)What are the difference between dynamic adjectives and stative

adjectives?(320-321)

第五章词义的变化；

1．词义变化的种类

识记：词义的扩大、词义的缩小、词义的升华、词义的降格的基本概念。

领会：四种变化方式在英语词汇发展中的作用。

2．词义变化的原因

领会：词义演变的语言外部原因：历史原因、阶级原因、心理原因。语言内部原因：缩略、借用和类推。

Change of Meaning

I. Polysemy

The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as “polesemy”; such a word is “polesemic”.

1. Sources of polysemy

Polesemy can arise in a number of ways.

A. Shifts in application

Words have a number of different aspects according to the contexts in which they are used. Some of these aspects are purely ephemeral; others may develop into permanent shades of meaning and, as the gap between them widens, we may eventually come to regard them as different senses of the same term.

Shifts in application are particularly noticeable in the use of adjectives since these are apt

B. Specialization in a social milieu

Polesemy often arises through a kind of verbal shorthand. For a lawyer, “action” will naturally mean “legal action”; for the soldier it will mean a military operation, without any need for a qualifying epithet. In this way the same word may acquire a number of specialized senses, only one of which will be applicable in a given milieu.

C. Figurative language

A word can be given one or more figurative senses without losing its original

meaning: old and new will live on side by side as long as there is no possibility of confusion between them. Polesemy that is based on metaphors can be exemplified by the following phrases: the bed of a river, the rock of a gun, a saddle in the mountains, a sheet of paper, iron or water, etc.

2. Primary and derivative (derived) meaning

The primary meaning refers to what a word originally meant and the derivative meaning refers to the meaning springing from the original meaning

3. Central meaning and secondary meaning

An important process by which words extend their meaning is called radiation.

The primary or central meaning appears at the form of a hub and secondary meanings radiate out from it like the spokes of a wheel. Each of the secondary meanings is independent of all the rest, and may be traced back to the central signification.Take the word “power” for example. Its central meaning is “ability to act”. It may refer to (1) control over one?s subordinates; (2) delegated authority; (3) physical strength; (4) mechanical energy; (5) a device by means of which energy can be applied to mechanical purposes; (6) moral or intellectual force; (7) a person of influence; (8) one of the great nations of the world; (9) a mathematic conception; (10) an army or troop of soldiers; (11) an effective quality of style in writing or oratory; (12) the degree of magnification of a lens, microscope, telescope, etc.

Another process, as opposed to radiation, is called “concatenation”. It means that

a word moves gradually away from its original sense as a result of successive

semantic changes until, in may cases, there is not a trace of connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary sense. A good example is “candidate”. The word derived from the Latin candidates which originally meant “a person dressed in white”, then, “a white-robed seeker for officer”, from the Roman custom of wearing one?s freshest robes when asking the suffrages of the people. In the current use of “candidate”, the idea of “white attire” has completely disappeared, leaving only the sense of “an applicant for office”, which has no obvious connection with t he primary meaning of the word.

II. Types of Semantic Changes

There are a variety of semantic changes in the English language, illustrated one by one in the following.

1. Generalization or Extension

The word “generalization, or extension” refers to the st retching of meaning.

Most words begin as specific names for things. With the passage of time, this precise denotation is lost and the word?s meaning is extended, generalized, or blurred.

More examples

Bribery, morsel of bread given to beggars (obsolete)

Economy, management of a household or state, public revenue

Orientation

Influence, the supposed flowing of an ethereal fluid or power from the stars, thought by astrologers to affect the characters and actions of people Holidays, religious festival

Layman, person not a clergy

Sanctuary, a holy place

Slogan, cry used by Scottish Highland and Irish clans in battle or as an assembly signal

place, a broad street

2. Specialization

“Specialization” means “shrinking of meaning”.

When a word is equally applicable to a number of different objects which resemble each other in some respects, or to a vague or general

category of ideas, it may at any moment become specialized by being

used to name one of those objects or to express one of those ideas.

1) The old meaning of “artillery” was “munitions of war”. Today it means

“mounted guns”.

2) “Pill” which once meant a general category of small medicinal ball has

now narrowed to the more specific meaning of birth control pill.

3) “Fowl” originally meant “any kind of bird”. Later, it came to mean only

large edible birds, and now when the word is used alone it is further

restricted to domestic birds such as the hen.

4) “ Fission”, if standing alone, would now probably be taken by most

readers to refer not to any kind of “splitting”, but to nuclear fission.

5) “Nucleus” would similarly be taken as the nucleus of an atom, though

before Hiroshima it was specialized for most readers as a “cell

nucleus”.

6) “Radiation” is now likely to make us think not of the “general process

of spreading out of light or heat rays, wheel-like, from a center”, but of

“the diffusion of radioactive particles or emanations following an

atomic bomb explosion”.

3. Elevation or Amelioration

When the meaning narrows toward a more favorable meaning, it is called elevation or amelioration.

1) “naughty” once meant wicked and depraved. Today, it means only mild

mischief.

2) “mischief” itself once meant wicked behavior. Today it can apply to a

merely naughty child.

3) At one time, “shrewd” meant depraved or wicked. Today, it is somewhat

complimentary.

Some words that originally implied only neutral judgment, then gradually narrowed in the direction of “favorable”.

1) “Praise” once meant “set a value on something good or bad” and now

applies to something good.

2) “Fame” which originally meant “report” now means “good reputation”.

3) “Success” which once meant “result, outcome” now refers to a

favorable or satisfactory outcome or result.

A process similar to this has occurred with words that refer to various occupations

and social roles that have elevated through history:

1) “knight” originally named only a boy or youth;

2) “constable”, the head groom;

3) “queen”, a woman;

4) “ minister”, a servant;

5) “marshal”, a stable servant;

6) “lady”, a kneader of bread;

7) “ steward”, possibly overseer of the sky;

8) “ambassador”, a messenger.

4. Degeneration

When the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning it is called degeneration or pejorative change. Some words once respectable may become less so and others once neutral in meaning may acquire a pejorative connotation.

A “villain was originally a man who worked on a farm or villa. Such a

person was naturally felt by his social superiors to have a low sense of

morality, and the word “villain”, at first a term implying no contempt.,

came to be a term of reproach.

The process of pejorative change has occurred with other words

churl (once a man )

boor （粗野的人）(once a farmer)

knave (once a boy)

hussy （贱妇）(once a housewife)

stink (once any odor)

smirk（傻笑）(once a smile)

retaliate (once repay for anything)

predicament (once any situation)

immoral (once not customary)

lust (once desire in general).

5. The use of the abstract for the concrete or vice versa

The striking use of the abstract for the concrete is the application of the name of a quality to a person. It is the reverse of personification. In personification, a quality is spoken of as a person whereas in the use of the abstract for the concrete a person is d esignated as if he were the quality incarnate, as in “She is virtue itself.”

The Elizabethan poets applied abstract nouns to persons. Thus Shakespeare uses “admiration” for “wonderful creature” (“Bring in the admiration”).

Polyxenes addresses Peradita as “enchantment”, meaning that she has bewitched his son by her beauty.

Juliet goes so far in her excitement as to call her old nurse “ancient damnation”.

Though none of these phrases would occur in contemporary English, we can still