词汇学作业changes of word meaning

词汇学论文

外国语学院

题目：causes and types of changes in word meaning

Causes and types of changes in

word meaning

[ Abstract ] We have learned that vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents. Comparatively, the latter is even more unstable than the former.[1]Almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a centuryago. The meaning of word is changing since the beginning of the language and will continue in the future because all sorts of reasons and from these changes we can summarize some of their characters and forms.The reason of changing about meaning can be very complicated, but generally speaking, we can divide them into two main causes, that are extra-linguistic factors and linguistic factors. And transformation of word-meaning follow a number of patterns, the major patterns are: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, transference, and euphemism. Of these major tendencies, extension and narrowing are by far the most common. It’s not only very fun to find the accounts and their relationship between old and new meaning of wordbut also have vital significance in the process of our study.In this thesis I will discuss in some details of the reasons of change and the major patterns of change.

[摘要]由于词汇的形式和词义都在连续地发生变化，因而词汇是语言

中最不稳定的元素。其中词义的变化更为不稳定。现在，几乎我们使用的每一个单词和一世纪之前的含义相比，都有轻微的改变。因为各种原因，词义从语言的开始就在发生变化并会在未来继续下去，我们可以从中总结出词义变化原因和形式。词义变化的原因很复杂但一般来讲，可分为两类：语言学外因素和语言学因素。词义变化的主要形式有：词义的扩大，缩小，词义的升华，降格及词义的转移和委婉表达。其中，词义的扩大和缩小是最常见的。了解词义变化的原因和新旧含义的关系不仅有趣还会对我们的学习产生重要意义。在这篇文章里，我将就词义变化的原因及形式进行详细的阐述。

[ 关键词] word;cause ;change ; type

提纲：

一、Causes of change

(1)Extra-linguistic factors

①Historical reason②Class reason③Psychological reason

(2 )Linguistic factors

①Shortening②borrowing

③competition of native words④analogy

二、Patterns of change

(1)Extension of meaning

①polysemic words ②technical terms

③words commonized from proper names

④The changes in meaning are gradual

(2)Narrowing of meaning

①common words to proper nouns

②some phrases are shortened (adjectives)

③material nouns

（3）Elevation of meaning

（4）Degradation of meaning

（5）Transference of meaning

①Associated transfer

②Transfer between abstract and concrete meanings

③Transfer between subjective and objective meanings

④Synesthesia

（6）Euphemism

一、Causes of change变化的原因：There are generally

two major factors that cause changes in meaning.

（1）Extra-linguistic factors语言学外因素

①Historical reason历史原因

●A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed.

Take a word “pencil”, for instance, it is from a Latin word meaning “a little tail” or “a fine brush”, like our Chinese “pen”. Later, when it was made of wood and graphite, it was still called a “pencil”.

●Increased scientific knowledge and discovery is also an important factor that underlies the change of word meaning.

Take the word “engine” for example. Its o rigin is a Latin word “ingenious”, natural ability”. But when stream power was developed in the first quarter of the 19th century, the

term “engine” come to mean “a railroad locomotive", and in contemporary English it means “any machine that uses energy to develop mechanical power, especially .,a machine for starting motion in some other machine”

②class reason阶级原因

●Language records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different social varieties of language have come into being.

●The attitude of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation.

●Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have deteriorated and now have taken on a pejorative sense.

E.g. Churl, hussy, wench, villain which were originally neutral in color have been down-g raded as “ill-manned or bad people”.

③psychological reason心理原因[3]

● The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors. It takes three forms (a) euphemism (b) grandiloquence (c) cynicism

E.g；We have such euphemistic expression in referring to death as “to pass away” “to be no more” “sleep forever”…and many others.

●People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicious, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, contempt, hatred, etc.

The fact that some low, humble and despised occupations often take on more appealing names is all

due to psychological reasons.

Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.

（2）Linguistic factors 语言学因素

The internal factors within the language system.

①One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole. We called shortening. 缩短

②The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. We named borrowing.借用

③The competition of native words eventually yields the semantic division.

④The change of meaning is brought about by analogy. That’s analogy.类推

二、Types of changes演变类型

（1）Extension of meaning：It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.【词义的扩大】[2]

一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词义被延伸，范围扩大，从而指代一种普遍意义语义变化过程。

For example, the word barn, its original meaning is ‘a place for storing only barley’, but now has extended to mean a ‘storeroom’. Picture was once ‘painting’, but now has come to include ‘drawings’ and even ‘photographs’.

①A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English

have their meanings extended to a degree that they can

almost mean everything. E.g :thing,business,respect

②Generalization of meaning is also found in many technical

terms, which are confined to specialized use.

E.g:allergic(original) too sensitive to medicine 患过敏症的

(present) averse or disinclined to 反感的；厌恶的③Many proper nouns including person names, place names, etc. have become common nouns used in everyday life.

E.g: newton（牛顿）ampere（安培）joule（焦耳）

④The changes in meaning are gradual, and words are not changed in a day.E.gLady(the hostess --noblewoman ---well-cultivated woman --- woman)

（2）Narrowing of meaning：It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English.【词义的缩小】

把词义范围较广的词缩小，表示特指，即过去具有普遍意义的词变化后，现在仅仅表达特殊意义E.g :wife-woman--married woman

Meat---food---flesh of animals

①common words to proper nouns

E.g:city--the City ,means “the business center of London”

prophet—stand for the Prophet named “Mohammed”

②some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on specialized meanings. E.g: a general = a general officer

an editorial = an editoria l article

③Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.

E.g: glass-- a cup-like container or a mirror

silver ---silver dollar

（3）Elevation of Meaning：It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of

importance.Some words early in their history signify

something quite low or humble, but change as time goes

by to designate something agreeable or pleasant.【词义

的升华】词义的升华指词由贬义或中性转变为褒义。即，有些词在历史上表示“卑微、下贱”之义，随着时间的推

移转为“惬意的，愉快的”。[5]

E.g: nice (ignorant -- foolish --delightful, pleasant)

Fond （foolish --- affectionate）

Awesome ( terrible---terrific )

（4）It is a process by which words with appreciatory or neutral affective meaning fall into ill reputation or come

to be used in a derogatory sense.【词义的降格】

这是一个词由原先表示褒义或者中性意义转为表示贬义的过程。E.gblessed andhappy--- innocent----simple ----foolish

gay---happy---homosexual

（5）Some words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have

experienced the process of semantic transfer,

known as transference of meaning.有些词原指称某些

事物，后来发生变化，转为指称另外的事物，就是【词义的转

移】

①Associated Transfer （联想转移）

Two objects have some similarities that enable people to associate one to the other.E.g :The lip of a wound The tongues of fire

②Transfer Between Abstract and Concrete Meanings 抽

象含义与具体意义间的转移

●Abstract to concrete meaning

E.g: Room formerly meant “space”,now it has developed a concrete me aning “rooms”.

Concrete to abstract meaning

E.gGrasp(original)A firm hold with the hands and arms

(present)The power or ability to understand

③Transfer Between Subjective and Objective Meanings (主观意义和客观意义间的转移) Some words were formerly used subjectively but later shifted to an objective use, and the subjective meaning was totally lost.

E.g:pitiful---full of pity—deserving pity

Dreadful—full of dread—causing dread [2]

④Synesthesia (通感)This kind of transfer takes place between words of sensation. That is, words usually associated with one sense are used to describe another sense.

E.g:Clear-sounding (from sight to hearing)

Warm colors (from touch to sight)

Sweet voice/music (from taste to hearing)

（6）Euphemism【委婉语】

In English as in any other language, there are things which are considered to be taboo and specific unpleasantness which relate to such things as accidents, illness, death and sex. People tend to avoid mentioning them directly and talk about them in a euphemistic way. They try to employ pleasant terms to express the ideas.

There is a semantic change involved as the expressions used often have little to do with the referents.

E.g:Restroom, bathroom, lounge, John, convenience, comforts room and powder room are all euphemistic terms for “toilet”

which itself is a euphemistic term.[4]

参考文献：

①郭家铨.英语词汇多义变化的原因[M ].现代外语,1993. 3.

②申开敏.词义的演变课件，海南师范大学外国语学院，百度文库

③吴秀芳.现代英语的词义变化与外部原因[M].河南职技师院学报

2000.6

④吴华松.英语新词的构成及修辞手段[M]. 武汉理工大学学报(社

会科学版)2006.10

⑤杨鑫南. 当代英语变迁[M ].北京:外语教学与研究出版社 .2007