mission and vision

S&P

Standard & Poor's (S&P) is a United States-based financial services company. It is a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies that publishes financial research and analysis on stocks and bonds. It is well known for its stock-market indices, the US-based S&P 500, the Australian S&P/ASX 200, the Canadian S&P/TSX, the Italian S&P/MIB and India's S&P CNX Nifty. The company is one of the Big Three credit-rating agencies, which also include Moody's Investor Service and Fitch Ratings. Its head office is located on 55 Water Street in Lower Manhattan, New York City.

TEA-party Taxed Enough Already

League of Conservation Voters 美国自然保护选民联合会

The League of Conservation Voters (LCV) is a political advocacy organization founded in 1969 by American environmentalist David Brower in the early years of the environmental movement. LCV's mission is to "advocate for sound environmental policies and to elect pro-environmental candidates who will adopt and implement such policies."[citation needed] As of 2009, the president of LCV is Gene Karpinski. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C.

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes USEPA) is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress. The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 3, 1970, after Nixon submitted a reorganization plan to Congress and it was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate.The agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Lisa P. Jackson. The EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The agency has approximately 18,000 full-time employees.

IMF

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world.

Key IMF activities:

The IMF supports its membership by providing

policy advice to governments and central banks based on analysis of economic trends and cross-country experiences;

research, statistics, forecasts, and analysis based on tracking of global, regional, and individual economies and markets;

loans to help countries overcome economic difficulties;

concessional loans to help fight poverty in developing countries; and technical

assistance and training to help countries improve the management of their economies.

Original aim:

The founders aimed to build a framework for economic cooperation that would avoid a repetition of the disastrous economic policies that had contributed to the Great Depression of the 1930s and the global conflict that followed.

provide a forum for cooperation on international monetary problems

facilitate the growth of international trade, thus promoting job creation, economic growth, and poverty reduction;

promote exchange rate stability and an open system of international payments; and lend countries foreign exchange when needed, on a temporary basis and under adequate safeguards, to help them address balance of payments problems.

An adapting IMF:

Stepping up crisis lending.

Greater lending flexibility.

Providing analysis and advice.

Drawing lessons from the crisis.

Historic reform of governance.

World Economic Outlook (WEO)

World Economic Outlook is basically a survey conducted and published by International Monetary Fund. It is published twice and partly updated 3 times in an year. It portrays the world economy in the near and medium context (basically 4 years). WEO forecasts include the macroeconomic indicators, such as GDP, inflation, current account and fiscal balance of more than 180 countries around globe. It also deals with major economic policy issues.

European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF)

The European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) is a special purpose vehicle financed by members of the eurozone to combat the European sovereign debt crisis. It was agreed by the 27 member states of the European Union on 9 May 2010, aiming at preserving financial stability in Europe by providing financial assistance to eurozone states in economic difficulty.The Facility is headquartered in Luxembourg City, and the European Investment Bank provides treasury management services and administrative support to it through a service level contract.

Gulf Cooperation Council

is a political and economic union of the Arab states bordering the Persian Gulf and constituting the Arabian Peninsula, namely Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. Jordan and Morocco have been invited to join the council.

World Bank

Type International organization

Legal status Treaty

Purpose/focus Crediting

Location Washington DC

Membership 187 countries (IBRD)

170 countries (IDA)

President Robert B. Zoellick

Main organ Board of Directors

Parent organization World Bank Group

Website https://www.360docs.net/doc/d3607545.html,

The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans?to developing countries for capital programmes.

The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty. By law,[which?] all of its decisions must be guided by a commitment to promote foreign investment, international trade and facilitate capital investment.

The World Bank differs from the World Bank Group, in that the World Bank comprises only two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA), whereas the latter incorporates these two in addition to three more:International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).

G-20 major economies

Formation 1999

2008 (Heads of State Summits)

Purpose/focus Bring together systemically important industrialized and developing economies to discuss key issues in the global economy.

The Group of Twenty Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors (also known as the G-20, G20, and Group of Twenty) is a group of finance ministers and central bank governors from 20 major economies: 19 countries plus the European Union, which is represented by the President of the European Council and by the European Central Bank.Their heads of government or heads of state have also periodically conferred at summits since their initial meeting in 2008. Collectively, the G-20 economies account for more than 80 percent of the global gross national product (GDP),80 percent of world trade (including EU intra-trade) and two-thirds of the world population.They contribute to 84.1 percent and 82.2 percent of the world's economic growth by nominal GDP and GDP (PPP) respectively from the years 2010 to 2016, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The G-20 was proposed by former Canadian Finance Minister Paul Martin (later, Prime Minister) for cooperation and consultation on matters pertaining to the international financial system. It studies, reviews, and promotes discussion (among key industrial and emerging market countries) of policy issues pertaining to the promotion of international financial stability, and seeks to address issues that go beyond the responsibilities of any one organization. With the G-20 growing in stature since the 2008 Washington summit, its leaders announced on September 25, 2009, that the group will replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations.

The heads of the G-20 nations met semi-annually at G-20 summits between 2008

and 2011. Following the most recent summit, which was held in Cannes in November 2011, all future G-20 summits are to be held annually.

APEC

that seeks to promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union) in other parts of the world, APEC works to raise living standards and education levels through sustainable economic growth and to foster a sense of community and an appreciation of shared interests among Asia-Pacific countries.

Three Pillars

1.Trade and Investment Liberalisation

2.Business Facilitation

3.Economic and Technical Cooperation

Advancing three priorities in 2011

APEC representatives recommended ways to build toward a seamless regional economy by advancing three priorities in 2011:

strengthening regional economic integration and expanding trade and investment;

encouraging green growth; and advancing regulatory cooperation and convergence in order to reduce the barriers that businesses—especially smaller companies—face in the region.

Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)

The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), also known as the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement, is a multilateral free trade agreement that aims to further liberalise the economies of the Asia-Pacific region; specifically, Article 1.1.3 notes: ―The Parties see k to support the wider liberalisation process in APEC consistent with its goals of free and open trade and investment.‖ The original agreement between the countries of Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore was signed on June 3, 2005, and entered into force on May 28, 2006. Six additional countries – Australia, Malaysia, Peru, Japan, United States, and Vietnam – are negotiating to join the group. On the last day of the 2010 APEC summit, November 14, leaders of the nine negotiating countries endorsed the proposal advanced by United States President Barack Obama that set a target for settlement of negotiations by the next APEC summit in November 2011.On the 11th November 2011 the Japanese Prime Minister, Yoshihiko Noda, announced negotiations to join

The TPP group now includes only four smaller, relatively affluent economies -- Chile, New Zealand, Brunei and Singapore -- but the U.S., Australia, Malaysia, Vietnam and Peru are negotiating to join.

America welcomed the overtures from Canada and Mexico about joining the so called TPP, issuing a statement calling them America's "neighbors and largest export markets."

The push for the so-called TPP, billed as a building block for an eventual regionwide free trade zone, likewise is likely to underscore rifts between the richest APEC economies and the developing members.

ASEAN

Association of Southeast Asian Nations

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations,commonly abbreviated ASEAN is a geo-political and economic organization of ten countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.Since then, membership has expanded to include Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Its aims include the acceleration of economic growth, social progress, cultural development among its members, the protection of regional peace and stability, and to provide opportunities for member countries to discuss differences peacefully.

ASEAN covers a land area of 4.46 million km2, 3% of the total land area of Earth, with a population of approximately 600 million people, 8.8% of the world population. The sea area of ASEAN is about three times larger than its land counterpart. In 2010, its combined nominal GDP had grown to US$1.8 trillion.If ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the ninth largest economy in the world.

APEC

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a forum for 21 Pacific Rim countries (formally Member Economies) that seeks to promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union) in other parts of the world, APEC works to raise living standards and education levels through sustainable economic growth and to foster a sense of community and an appreciation of shared interests among Asia-Pacific countries. Members account for approximately 40% of the world's population, approximately 54% of the world's gross domestic product and about 44% of world trade.

An annual APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting is attended by the heads of government of all APEC members except the Republic of China (Taiwan), which is represented under the name Chinese Taipei by a ministerial-level official. The location of the meeting rotates annually among the member economies, and until 2011, a famous tradition involved the attending leaders dressing in a national costume of the host member.

WTO

World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on T ariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments. Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on

derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

Brinksmanship 政治冒险政策，边缘政策

The practice, especially in international politics, of seeking advantage by creating the impression that one is willing and able to push a highly dangerous situation to the limit rather than concede.

Reserve currency 储备货币

A reserve currency, or anchor currency, is a currency that

is held in significant quantities by many governments and institutions as part of their foreign exchange reserves.

It also tends to be the international pricing currency for products traded on a global market, and commodities such as oil, gold, etc.

This permits the issuing country to purchase the commodities at a marginally lower rate than other nations, which must exchange their currencies with each purchase and pay a transaction cost. For major currencies, this transaction cost is negligible with respect to the price of the commodity. It also permits the government issuing the currency to borrow money at a better rate, as there will always be a larger market for that currency than others.

seigniorage

seigniorage revenues铸币税收入

Monetary Seigniorage铸币税

Seigniorage is really a tax on holders of money and government debt which is paid via inflation.

铸币税实际上是通过通胀对货币和国债持有人征收的税收。

The collection seigniorage, may further expand the domestic demand, promotes the economical the positive cycle.

征收铸币税，可进一步扩大内需，推动经济的良性循环。

windfall profit tax暴利税

The state could charge heavily for acting as lender of last resort—or, less desirable, impose a windfall tax on bank profits or a "Tobin tax" on transactions.

国家可对作为最后贷方的银行罚以重款，或退而求其次，对银行利润征收暴利税，或者对银行交易征收“托宾税”。

countervailing duties反补贴税

Countervailing duties (CVDs), also known as anti-subsidy duties, are trade import duties imposed under WTO Rules to neutralize the negative effects of subsidies. They are imposed after an investigation finds that a foreign country subsidizes its exports, injuring domestic producers in the importing country. According to World Trade Organization rules, a country can launch its own investigation and decide to charge extra duties, provided such additional duties are in accordance with the GATT Article VI and the GATT "Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Duties".

technical default技术性违约

risk premium

A risk premium is the minimum amount of money by which the expected return on a risky asset must exceed the known return on a risk-free asset, in order to induce an individual to hold the risky asset rather than the risk-free asset. Thus it is the minimum willingness to accept compensation for the risk.

The certainty equivalent, a related concept, is the guaranteed amount of money that an individual would view as equally desirable as a risky asset.

portfolio diversification

In finance, diversification means reducing risk by investing in a variety of assets. If the asset values do not move up and down in perfect synchrony, a diversified portfolio will have less risk than the weighted average risk of its constituent assets, and often less risk than the least risky of its constituents.[1] Therefore, any risk-averse investor will diversify to at least some extent, with more risk-averse investors diversifying more completely than less risk-averse investors.

Government procurement

Government procurement, also called public tendering or public procurement, is the procurement of goods and services on behalf of a public authority, such as a government agency. With 10 to 15% of GDP in developed countries, and up to 20% in developing countries, government procurement accounts for a substantial part of the global economy.

To prevent fraud, waste, corruption or local protectionism, the law of most countries regulates government procurement more or less closely. It usually requires the procuring authority to issue public tenders if the value of the procurement exceeds a certain threshold.

Government procurement is also the subject of the Agreement on Government Procurement, a plurilateral international treaty under the auspices of the WTO.