6 Architecture

Unit 7 Architecture

Passage 1

About the Palace Museum

Established in 1925, the Palace Museum is located in the imperial palace of the consecutive Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. The magnificent architectural complex, also known as the Forbidden City, and the vast holdings of paintings, calligraphy, ceramics, and antiquities of the imperial collections make it one of the most prestigious museums in China and the world. In 1961, the State Council designated the former imperial residence as one of China's foremost-protected cultural heritage sites, and in 1987 it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Location and Layout

Situated in the heart of Beijing, the Palace Museum is approached through the Gate of Heavenly Peace (Tian'an men). Immediately to the north of the Palace Museum is Prospect Hill (also called Coal Hill), while on the east and west are the Wangfujing and Zhongnanhai neighborhoods. Ancient China’s astron omers endowed the location with cosmic significance. They correlated the emperor's abode, which they considered the pivot of the terrestrial world, with the Pole Star (Ziweiyuan)—believed to be the center of the heavens. Because of its centrality and restricted access, the palace was called the Forbidden City. It was built from 1406 to 1420 by the third emperor of the Ming dynasty, the Yongle Emperor (r. 1403-1420) who, upon usurping the throne, determined to move his capital northward from Nanjing to Beijing. Over 200 years later, the Ming dynasty fell to the Manchu Qing dynasty in 1644. Then, in 1911, the Qing were subsequently overthrown by republican revolutionaries. The last emperor, Puyi (who ruled from 1909 to 1911 under the reign name Xuantong), continued to live in the palace after his abdication until he was expelled in 1924. During nearly six hundred years of imperial operation, the palace served as the residence and court of twenty-four emperors.

The Forbidden City is surrounded by 10-metre-high walls and a 52-metre-wide moat. Measuring 961 meters from north to south and 753 meters from east to west, the complex covers an area of 1,110,000 square meters. Each side of the rectangular city has a gate. These four gates are the Meridian Gate (Wu men) on the south, the Gate of Divine Prowess (Shenwu men) on the north, and the East and West Prosperity Gates (Donghua men and Xihua men), respectively.

Entering from the south, visitors will see a succession of halls and palaces spreading out on either side of the central axis. The glowing yellow roofs of the stately buildings seem to levitate above the vermilion walls. This magnificent sight is amplified by the painted ridges and carved beams of the ancient structures.

Known as the Outer Court, the southern portion of the Forbidden City features three main halls – the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Taihedian), Hall of Central Harmony (Zhonghedian), and Hall of Preserving Harmony (Baohedian). These three halls are flanked by the Belvedere of Embodying Benevolence (Tirenge) and Belvedere of Spreading Righteousness (Hongyige). The Outer Court was the venue for the emperor’s court and grand audiences.

Mirroring this arrangement is the Inner Court, which is the northern portion of the Forbidden City. The Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing gong), Hall of Union (Jiaotaidian), and Palace of Earthly Tranquility (Kunning gong) lie upon the central axis. The Six Eastern Palaces and the Six Western Palaces are private imperial residences found on their respective sides of the main axis. Other major buildings in the Inner Court include the Hall for Abstinence (Zhai gong) and Hall of Sincere Solemnity (Chengsudian) in the east and the Hall of Mental Cultivation (Yangxindian), Belvedere of Raining Flowers (Yuhuage), and Palace of Compassion and Tranquility (Cining gong) in the west. The Inner Court is not only comprised of the residences of the emperor and his consorts but also venues for religious rituals and administrative activities. The far north end of the Inner Court is the Imperial Garden.

In total, the buildings of the two courts account for an area of some 163,000 square meters. These structures were designed in strict accordance to the traditional code of architectural hierarchy, which designated specific features to reflect the paramount authority and status of the emperor. Ordinary mortals were forbidden—and most would never dare—to come within close proximity to this imperial city.

Symbolism

The design of the Forbidden City, from its overall layout to the smallest detail, was meticulously planned to reflect philosophical and religious principles, and above all to symbolize the majesty of Imperial power. Some noted examples of symbolic designs include: Yellow is the color of the Emperor. Thus almost all roofs in the Forbidden City bear yellow glazed tiles. There are only two exceptions. The library at the Pavilion of Literary Profundity (Wenyuange) had black tiles because black was associated with water, and thus fire-prevention. Similarly, the Crown Prince's residences have green tiles because green was associated with

wood, and thus growth.

The main halls of the Outer and Inner courts are all arranged in groups of three – the shape of the Qiantriagram, representing Heaven. The residences of the Inner Court on the other hand are arranged in groups of six – the shape of the Kuntriagram, representing the Earth.

The sloping ridges of building roofs are decorated with a line of statuettes led by a man riding a phoenix and followed by an imperial dragon. The number of statuettes represents the status of the building – a minor building might have 3 or 5. The Hall of Supreme Harmony has 10, the only building in the country to be permitted this in Imperial times. As a result, its 10th statuette, called a "Hangshi", or "ranked tenth", is also unique in the Forbidden City.

The layout of buildings follows ancient customs laid down in the Classic of Rites. Thus, ancestral temples are in front of the palace. Storage areas are placed in the front part of the palace complex, and residences in the back.

Questions:

1. Why do you think the Palace Museum was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site?

2. Describe the location and layout of the Palace Museum.

3. Can the Palace Museum represent traditional Chinese architecture styles? Why or why not?

4. Can you list some other famous ancient constructions in China?

Passage 2

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

Gothic architecture revolutionized the appearance of Mid-Medieval buildings. Do remember though, that 'gothic' is actually a retrospective term. It wouldn't have been used in Medieval times. This style of architecture was, back then, called the "Modern Style", and it was a revolutionary influence for all castles, churches and palaces in Europe.

Fundamentally, gothic architecture transformed castles, churches, cathedrals and pretty much the whole of Europe! This style of architecture developed because of common architectural problems in Medieval times. Back in the 1100s-1200s, building skills were extremely limited. Stone castles were rudimentary - dark, cold, and damp. The style originally became popular in France from the 1150s, and spread with surprising speed across the whole of Europe. Gothic architecture tried to solve some of these unpleasant problems, and created light, pleasant and airy buildings. Before the gothic, architecture was functional. Now, architecture

became beautiful. This menacing gargoyle in Munich is a great example of gothic architecture. Why build a simple rain-gutter, when you could turn it into a monster? Some gothic buildings - particularly churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster, in York, England (the largest gothic cathedral in Northern Europe) - were rendered into awe-inspiring places of piety and worship, as a result of their phenomenal gothic design. Many castles adopted some of the characteristics of gothic architecture, too. They became transformed from dank living environments into majestic, light and pleasant residences for the lords and ladies within.

Some 300 years later, in the 1450s, this style began to go out of fashion. Renaissance architects, the new vogue, started to pour scorn upon this style of architecture. They derided it as being old-fashioned and uncouth, because it was fantastical, exaggerated and daring. Their Renaissance style was classical, solid, pure, and symmetrical. To express their scorn, the Renaissance architects actually coined the term 'gothic architecture'. 'Gothic' was a pejorative term, as the goths were barbarians who had wreaked havoc on Europe hundreds of years earlier. The choice of "gothic architecture" expressed their disgust for an architectural style that they felt had blighted the face of Europe.

However, the gothic style was - and is to today - absolutely unstoppable. In the mid-1600s, the style resurfaced, and was re-invented for more modern audiences. The 'gothic revival' period (or the "neo-gothic" period; also referred to in England as the "Victorian gothic") saw many of the characteristics of gothic architecture re-invented for more modern buildings. Buildings built in the gothic revival style include the Houses of Parliament in London; Parliament Hill in Ontario, Washington Cathedral, and many campuses of 1800s Universities worldwide. These adopted the common characteristics of gothic architecture in a more modern style. The gothic style is still phenomenally popular today, and is the design-of-choice for new churches, cathedrals and similar buildings in Europe and the Americas.

Many of the key characteristics of gothic architecture have been adopted into more modern architectural designs, and our current aesthetic style owes a great deal to the roots of the gothic architecture movement in Medieval times.

The Seven Key Characteristics of Gothic Architecture

1. Grand, Tall Designs, Which Swept Upwards With Height and Grandeur

In the times before gothic architecture, Early Medieval architectsstruggled to spread the weight of heavy stone walls. This meant that most towers needed to be short, and buildings thin, otherwise the sheer weight of higher levels (or large rooms and halls) would collapse into

themselves.

One of the fundamental characteristics of gothic architecture was its height. New building techniques (such as the flying buttress, detailed below) enabled architects to spread the weight of taller walls and loftier towers. This all meant that gothic buildings could, quite literally, scale new heights. It allowed them to reach up to the heavens - perfect for cathedrals and churches.

2. The Flying Buttress

The flying buttress is the defining external characteristic of gothic architecture. These buttresses effectively spread the weight of the new designs, taking the weight off the walls and transferring force directly to the ground.

"The flying buttress was practical and decorative, too" However, what's particularly notable about the flying buttress is that it's decorative, too. Rather than just being a simple support, buttresses were often elaborately designed and extremely decorative. They appeared to dart and sweep around each building, giving a sense of movement and of grandeur missing from previous architectural designs.

3. The Pointed Arch

The innovation of the pointed arch which was the defining internal characteristic of gothic architecture. Its significance was both practical and decorative.

The pointed arch effectively distributed the force of heavier ceilings and bulkier designs, and could support much more weight than previous, simple pillars. The stronger arches allowed for much more vertical height, too - they literally reached up to the heavens. The gothic arch wasn't just a workhorse. It had an aesthetic value and beauty which influenced many other features of gothic design - most notably the vaulted ceiling.

4. The Vaulted Ceiling

The vaulted ceiling was an innovation which lead on from the achievements of the pointed arch.

Irregular, vaulted ceilings utilized the technology of the pointed arch to spread force and weight from upper floors. The arch also provided the impression of height and magnificence, giving the vaulted ceiling a feeling of grandeur and elegance. The distribution of force within the vaulted ceiling enabled vaults to be built in different shapes and sizes, too. Previously, vaults could only have been circular or rectangular.

5. The Light and Airy Interior

Before gothic architecture, castles and early Medieval buildings were pretty depressing

places to live in or worship in. Castles, in particular, were places of damp and mould, as most weren't built strong enough to support slate or stone roofing. Although these fortresses could more or less prop up wooden roofs, these let in the rain. If that wasn't depressing enough, these old environments tended to be dark and dingy. The windows were generally tiny, as the force of the walls would collapse into themselves if they included any larger glassworks.

Gothic architecture strove to be the exact anthesis to this older Medieval style of building. It emphasized light, bright windows and airy interiors, transforming castles and churches into more pleasant and majestic environments.

6. The Gargoyles of Gothic Architecture

One of the most notable characteristics of gothic architecture is the gargoyle. Gargoyles are decorative, monstrous little creatures, perched at along the roofs and battlements of gothic buildings and castles.

Gargoyles have a practical purpose: they're spouts, enabling rainwater to drain off the roof and gush through their mouths, before plummeting to the ground (guttering is a relatively recent innovation!). However, gargoyles had another intended purpose: to strike fear into the hearts of ill-educated Medieval peasants, scaring them into the church or cathedral. Many gargoyles include elements of the grotesque: exaggerated, evil features or threatening poses, which would have leered down from on-high. In a world marked with fear and superstition, these creepy creatures would undoubtedly have encouraged many to seek solace and safety inside of a church or cathedral- protected from the demons and ghouls which roamed outside. The gargoyle is one of the defining characteristics of gothic architecture, and sticks in the mind even to today.

7. The Emphasis upon the Decorative Style and the Ornate

Gothic architecture marked the first time that beauty and aesthetic values had been incorporated into building design. This revolutionized the way that Medieval architects began to think of buildings. Architecture was no longer just functional - it began to have merit and meaning in its own right.

Increasingly ambitious and ornate designs of church, cathedral and castle came to be built. Rivalry and competition drew different groups of builders to conceive and construct grander and more decorative designs, for the glory of the Christian region.

Questions:

1. What are the differences between gothic architecture and the former architecture?

2. Do you think gothic architecture has been always popular since it appeared in the west? Why

or why not?

3. What are the main contributions of gothic architecture made to the current aesthetic style?

4. Try to explain the seven key characteristics of gothic architecture in your own words. Passage 3

Chinese Ancient Architectural Styles

Chinese architecture is as old as Chinese civilization, of which it is an integral part. Ancient Chinese architecture enjoys a long history and great achievements and has created many architectural miracles.There are famous neat cities, magnificent imperial palaces, solemn and breathtaking imperial tombs,mysterious sacrificial and ancestral altars and temples, delicate and exquisite gardens, various bridges as well as a variety of ordinary dwellings of natural simplicity.Ancient Chinese attained great accomplishment in building materials, artistic styles, layout and connotation, from which one can see the combination of technology, artistic skill and aesthetic taste.

Stages of Ancient Architectural Development

Originally, the residences of ancient Chinese were usually holes or caves. In the Shang Dynasty, simple timber framework began to appear, and later it became the main structure. Chinese ancient architecture made great progress when tiles were used together with timber structure, because they fitted together snugly for water-tightness. During the Warring States Period, buildings with elevated terraces became popular. Architects of the Han Dynasty demonstrated very sophisticated techniques. The technology of timber structure was gradually perfected. Meanwhile more and more multi-storied mansions appeared. With stones used as building materials, some buildings were constructed totally of stones.

The quality and quantity of tiles and bricks were improved, and mental materials were employed to decorate buildings. The advantages of bricks and stones were soon recognized, and it did not take long for the masonry pagoda to make its appearance and eventually to outlast its wooden prototypes; on the other hand, stone carvings and sculptures reached such a higher level that they were widely used to decorate buildings.

The Tang Dynasty was a period of great prosperity. Construction of palaces, Buddhist temples and pagodas flourished. People began to employ glazed tiles and carved stones in construction. Brick walls were common in the Tang structure, but this did not change the unique

and prominent feature of the classical Chinese architecture, timber structure. Tang’s residence reflected the strict hierarchy system of the feudal society. From the size of the hall and the number of rooms to its decoration and color, everything was strictly prescribed. Graceful and fancy carvings and mural paintings reached the climax in the early period of the feudal society.

Compared with those of the Tang Dynasty, Song architects introduced a style more elegant and refined. Architectural art reached an advanced level when more and more elegant and flexible designs were created, featuring polygonal, multi-eaved roofs, intricate ceiling structures, finely carved doors, windows, columns and brackets. Most important of all, a well-regulated set of rules governing design and execution was compiled, Ying TsaoFa Shi (Building Standards). Architectural design and framework, the use and shaping of architraves, ties, hip rafters, purlins, and other elements are fully specified in the book.

Ancient architecture continued to develop in the Yuan Dynasty, especially the Islamic mosques and Buddhist temples, which brought deep influences on the Han national architecture. In the Ming and the Qing dynasties, architecture reached its climax. Palaces represented the culmination of architectural extravagance, mainly through the extensive use of yellow glazed tiles, purple-red walls, white marble balustrades, ornate wood, stone and metal carvings, gilding, lacquering, painting and inlaying. The Qing Dynasty compiled another ―grammar book‖, Gong Cheng ZuoFaTse Li (Structural Regulations). It was the government manual to standardize architecture.

The Characteristics of Ancient Architectural Styles

Chinese ancient architecture features unique timber framework, with timber, bricks and tiles as the main building materials. The top load of a structure will be transferred to its groundwork through its posts, beams, lintels and joists. Walls bear no load and separate space only so that windows and walls will not be restricted to certain locations on the walls.

Due to its extreme flexibility and adaptability, this structure would effectively shelter occupants from different climates, however diverse they might be. Another important advantage of the timber structure is that it could resist earthquake since timbers are springy.

The layout of ancient architecture is plain, flexible and beautiful. Usually the design is symmetrical along the axes. In this way, group buildings look organically assembled and set off the main building more grandly. Every part of a building is put in a graceful shape, esp. roofs. The big roofs with rising edges, looking steady and harmonious, not only broaden lighting and make for drainage of rainwater, but also increase aesthetic interest. Colored paintings not only

function as decoration, but also as signs, protection, and symbols. In the same way, carving plays an important role in ancient architecture of China. The ornaments might be carved on bricks, stones and metals, with various patterns—animals, plants, portraits, performance, tales and so on.

Human being always pursue a cozy, comfortable, fresh, unaffected and graceful living environment. Ancient people were good at finding harmony between human and nature. They created endless space in limited land following the building principle of returning to nature, and they made full use of the natural conditions and tried every effort to put the layout, shape, and color in harmony with the surroundings.

The Categories of Chinese Ancient Architecture

Generally, Chinese ancient architecture consists of government architecture and civil architecture. The former mainly includes the imperial palaces, mausoleums, Buddhist temples, Taoist guan, altars, gardens and other big buildings, while the latter refers to all the nongovernmental architecture. In a narrow sense, ancient architecture includes the important and valuable legacies like palaces, altars, temples, tombs, pagodas, caves, towers, bridges, pavilions, as well as other traditional buildings with respective national styles and local flavors. Questions:

1. Make a brief introduction to different stages ofChinese ancientarchitectural development.

2. What are the characteristics of Chinese ancient architectural styles?

Passage 4

The Eiffel Tower

The three largest structures in the world were products of an outburst of structural creativity in the last half of the 19th century. The Crystal Palace, made of iron, erected for the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, covers the largest area; the Brooklyn Bridge, completed in steel in 1883, has the longest span; and the Eiffel Tower, made of steel and started in 1887, reaches the greatest height. The first two had utilitarian purposes. Sir Joseph Paxton's Crystal not only served royally the Great Exhibition but, being demountable, was transferred afterwards to Sydenham, where it was used for sculpture, painting and architectural exhibits, and for concerts until November 1936, when it burned, a lost symbol of happiness and brotherhood. The Brooklyn Bridge, built to connect the two great boroughs of New York City, reflected the desire to increase real estate

values in Brooklyn. The Eiffel Tower, on the other hand, is a case in itself. Built for the Paris Exhibition of 1889, it was meant to provide ostensibly nothing more or less than a magnificent view of Paris. Monsieur Eiffel extolled its utility as a military lookout, the salubrity of the air at its top, its uses as a laboratory to experiment with wind and gravity, but the innerspring to its construction was to demonstrate that France, 100 years after the revolution, was a leader of the technical world, capable of realizing the dream of a tower 300 meters high, almost 1,000 feet. It would be twice as high as the Washington Monument, at that time the tallest structure. Whatever its motivation, the tower in itself was and is totally "useless" from a practical point of view.

If we leave aside defense towers built by the Saracens all along the Mediterranean coast and similar defense towers of the medieval walled towns of Italy and France, almost all the other great towers of the past were built for spiritual purposes. They rose next to Renaissance churches and from the tops of Gothic cathedrals calling with their bells the prayer hours. As minarets they served and still serve to remind Moslem worshippers of their well-timed duties. They were also built as symbols of civic pride on or next to city halls. If they could be used to warn of an approaching enemy or bring citizens to important gatherings, so much the better. And they were tall: 200, 300 feet and more, all of them of stone, masonry, or bricks.

La Tour Eiffel acknowledges nothing so lofty or utilitarian. It was from the beginning a gigantic lark, an iron toy from which Parisians might admire their city, at the cost of one and one-half million 1889 dollars. And did it get hell from the defenders of the French tradition of beauty! Bouguereau, the academic painter; Garnier, the architect of the Opéra; Dumas, Jr., the novelist; Gounod, the composer; Leconte de Lisle, the poet; Prudhomme, the essayist; Guy de Maupassant, the novelist, all signed a resounding letter of indignant protest to the Minister of Public Works in an attempt to stop "the horror". Guy de Maupassant,never relenting, had lunch at the Tower as often as possible so as not to have to look at it. And he had a point, for the Tower so dominated Paris it could be seen from anywhere in the city, except from inside one of its restaurants.

If La Tour was an insult to the representatives of the "effete class", it was love at first sight for the people. Two million of them flocked to visit it during its first year. More than half of them reached its top. Thousands climbed the 1,671 steps before the elevators were open to the public. The crowds increased even long after the exhibition closed and, slowly but surely, their visits acquired new meanings.They went to look at the Tower as much as to look from it, to look inside, at its filigree of steel, as much as to point out the other monuments of their city. It became

the symbol of Paris, the Mecca of all travelers, visited by far more people than N?tre Dame or SacréCoeur. And then it became, somehow the symbol of France. Tourist posters ignored virtually all else. The "new" poets, writers, painters and musicians exalted its shape, its lightness, its infinitely widening significance. It became the subject of 51 paintings by Delaunay, the initiator of the dismembered visual image, who drew it simultaneously from top and bottom, right and left. Hitler vowed to destroy it. The Resistance fighters of World War II hoisted the tricolor from its top while the Nazi panzer divisions were still battling American tanks in the streets of Paris.The Algerian rebels planned to dynamite it, as did their French right-wing military opponents, both in vain. By then the Tower had become like a mountain that always was and will always be. Paris would be inconceivable without it. Surpassed in height by many a modern utilitarian tower, by chimneys, antennas and skyscrapers, it is still the Tower of Towers. Of no other man-made structure can one say that it transcended technology to become a great human symbol.

Questions:

1. What purpose do you think was The Eiffel Tower originally built?

2. Why do you thinkis The Eiffel Tower so popular today?

3. Why does the writer mention the defense towers of the Saracens and medieval towns of Italy and France?

4. What are the reasons that make The Eiffel Tower the symbol of Paris and France?

5. Make a brief summary of the passage.