Morphology and kinematics of the ionised gas in early-type galaxies

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Morphology and kinematics of the ionised gas in early-type galaxies Jes′u s Falc′o n-Barroso a ,1,Marc Sarzi b ,Roland Bacon c ,Martin Bureau b ,Michele Cappellari a ,Roger L.Davies b ,Eric Emsellem c ,Kambiz Fathi d ,Davor Krajnovi′c b ,Harald Kuntschner e ,Richard M.McDermid a ,Reynier F.Peletier f ,Tim de Zeeuw a a Sterrewacht Leiden,Niels Bohrweg 2,2333CA Leiden,The Netherlands b Denys Wilkinson Building,University of Oxford,Keble Road,Oxford,United Kingdom c CRAL,9Avenue Charles Andr′e ,69561,Saint Genis Laval,France d RIT,85Lomb Memorial Drive,Rochester,New York 14623,USA e Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility,European Southern Observatory,Karl-Schwarzschild-Str 2,85748Garching,Germany f Kapteyn Astronomical Institute,P .O.Box 800,9700AV Groningen,The Netherlands

1Introduction

The advent of integral-?eld spectrographs has opened a whole new window of pos-sibilities for extra-galactic studies.Coupled with large telescopes and advances in adaptive optics systems(AO),integral-?eld units(IFUs)offer a unique opportunity to go further in the exploration of astrophysical phenomena earlier in the history of the universe and at smaller scales.It is therefore not surprising that IFUs are quickly becoming standard instruments on all the8m-class telescopes.Besides the efforts to investigate the formation and evolution of galaxies in the early universe,much can be learned by studying in detail the fossil record of nearby galaxies using IFUs on intermediate-size telescopes.The SAURON project(de Zeeuw et al.2002),is a ?rst step in this direction.The project is designed to perform a systematic study of a representative sample of early-type,nearby galaxies using the SAURON(Bacon et al.2001)and OASIS(Bacon et al.1995;McDermid et al.2004)IFUs at the4.2m William Herschel Telescope.Early results of the survey have revealed a variety of structures much richer than usually recognised in early-type galaxies(de Zeeuw et al.2002;McDermid et al.2004;Emsellem et al.2004;see also R.McDermid’s contribution in this workshop).

Here we focus on the distribution and kinematics of the ionised gas of a subset of galaxies to illustrate the diversity of structures and ionisation processes present in the SAURON representative sample of48elliptical and lenticular galaxies.The sample contains an equal fraction of elliptical and lenticular galaxies,with equal number of?eld and cluster galaxies in each morphological group.We will make use of the two-dimensional information delivered by SAURON to compare the dis-tribution and kinematics of the stars and gas and to study the nature and origin of the ionised gas in these systems.A more extended analysis of the properties of the ionised gas for the entire sample is presented in Sarzi et al.(2005).Furthermore,the study of the stellar and gas properties of the24Sa bulges in the SAURON sample is addressed in Falc′o n-Barroso et al.(2005).

2Extraction of the ionised gas

Early-type galaxies were traditionally thought to be uniform stellar systems with little or no gas and dust.However,a considerable number of imaging and spec-troscopy studies have changed this view(Sadler&Gerhard1985;van Dokkum& Franx1995;Goudfrooij1999;Tran et al2001).In the spectral range delivered by SAURON there are three potential emission lines that can be measured(i.e.Hβ, [O III]λλ4959,5007,[N I]λλ5198,5200).Given that the stellar contribution to the overall spectrum in our sample of galaxies remains signi?cant,it is important to perform an accurate continuum subtraction in order to determine reliably the?uxes and kinematics of the emission lines.We investigated several methods to perform

this task and settled on a procedure that simultaneously?ts both the stellar and gaseous contributions to derive the?uxes,velocities and velocity dispersions of the emission lines.

Traditional methods to separate the stars and gas consisted of the subtraction of the best matching stellar template,in the regions free of emission,to the full spectrum of the galaxy.As described in Sarzi et al.(2005),this methodology can signi?cantly overestimate the?ux and velocity dispersion of the measured emission lines.Exten-sive simulations show that the new procedure is much more accurate and appears to be superior to previous ones,allowing us to detect emission down to an equivalent width of0.1?A.

3Distribution of the ionised gas

The distribution of the ionised gas in our sample shows diverse morphologies.In general the distribution follows that of the stars,although there are several cases where the situation is much more complex(i.e.?laments,rings,spiral arms,lanes). The incidence of ionised-gas emission in our sample is75%.Seven galaxies show only weak traces of emission,and there are?ve cases with no detection.By mor-phological type,lenticular galaxies display a slightly higher content of ionised gas than elliptical galaxies(83%versus66%).Similar percentages were found when the sample was divided according to environment(83%?eld,66%cluster).One important remark is that the fraction of galaxies with clearly detected emission in the Virgo cluster drops to only55%(10/18),with just3/9ellipticals showing the presence of gas.The incidence of ionised-gas shows no correlation with either lu-minosity or the presence of a bar in the galaxy.The detection rates found for our sample are in good agreement with those of Macchetto et al.(1996),who found emission in85%of the lenticular and68%of the ellipticals in their sample.

In Figure2,we present maps of the stellar and ionised-gas distribution and kine-matics for four of the48galaxies in our sample.NGC2974reveals a fast rotating gas disk co-rotating with respect to the stars.Despite the regular appearance of the ionised-gas distribution,the equivalent width(EW)map of the[O III]line(see Fig.2)highlights the presence of an inner ring and two spiral arms that extend all the way out to the limits of our?eld-of-view(see Krajnovi′c et al.2005a for a de-tailed analysis of this galaxy using SAURON data).A similarly regular case is that of NGC4526,although in this case the ionised gas is con?ned to a well de?ned, fast rotating disk in the central kpc of the galaxy.NGC2768is a well-known galaxy where the distribution of the ionised-gas appears to be perpendicular to that of its stellar counterpart(i.e.polar-ring,Fried&Illingworth1994;Bertola et al.1992). The SAURON[O III]EW map shows that the gas distribution has a?lamentary mor-phology along the galaxy minor axis.The gas distribution in NGC4278displays a

peculiar integral-sign pattern that is closely followed by the gas velocity?eld.The stellar and gas kinematics appear to be misaligned by increasingly wider angles,as they twist in opposite directions towards the outer parts of the?eld-of-view.

4What powers the observed nebular emission?

Diagnostic diagrams of[O III]/Hβvs[N II]/Hα(Veilleux&Osterbrock1987;Kauff-mann et al.2003)have been used extensively in the past to investigate the trigger of the ionisation of the gas(i.e.AGN,star-formation).Many scenarios have been invoked to explain the presence of ionised gas in early-type galaxies:central AGN, hot(107K)gas(Sparks et al.1989;de Jong et al.1990),young stars(Shields1992), post-AGB stars(Binette et al.1994),or shocks(Dopita&Sutherland1995).Within the wavelength range delivered by SAURON only the Hβand[O III]lines can be used for this purpose.Despite this limitation,the[O III]/Hβratio serves as a good indicator to locate regions where emission is due to young stars and also to trace variations of the ionisation mechanisms within a single galaxy.

Regions displaying low[O III]/Hβratios(i.e.≤1)are usually interpreted as indica-tive of star-formation(Ho et al.1997).However,higher ratios(i.e.>1)could still indicate star-formation if the metallicity of the gas is suf?ciently high(Veilleux& Osterbrock1987).Additionally other mechanisms can lead to high ratios.Since it is unlikely that the metallicity of the ionised gas varies abruptly within galaxies(un-less there has been some recent accretion of material),large variations across maps of the[O III]/Hβratio are more likely to be produced by changes in the ionisation mechanism rather than changes in the metallicity.

Figure2shows the[O III]/Hβratios for the galaxies discussed in Section3.The [O III]/Hβratio maps clearly reveal the presence of radial gradients and substruc-tures in the ionisation properties of the gas in the four galaxies.The ratio is mod-erately high in NGC2768,NGC2974,and NGC4278,while it is very low in NGC4526.In this last galaxy,the location of the low[O III]/Hβvalues corresponds to the location of a prominent dust disk(as shown in the unsharp-masked image), and suggests ongoing star formation.In this respect,there seems to be a clear link between the ionised structures found in the[O III]/Hβmaps with those seen in the [O III]equivalent width and kinematic maps(i.e.ring in NGC2974,or integral-sign pattern in NGC4278).

The remaining sample of44galaxies also displays a great diversity of[O III]/Hβratios within galaxies,but also across the sample.This suggests that either there are many mechanisms at play in the ionisation of the gas,that the metallicity of the ionised gas is very heterogeneous in those galaxies,or both.

5Relation between gas and dust

In order to study the dust distribution and compare it with that of the ionised gas we have generated unsharp-masked images using archival Hubble Space Telescope images.We found that,consistent with previous results,dust generally follows the ionised-gas distribution(Goudfrooij et al.1994;Tomita et el.2000;Tran et al. 2001).The opposite situation is not always true,as we have found galaxies with clear presence of emission with no traces of dust in the unsharp-masked images. As found by previous authors(Ho et al.2002),regular dust distributions generally are associated with smooth velocity?elds,however the lack of regular dust lanes does not imply the presence of irregular kinematics.

The four cases presented in Figure2display a wide range of dust morphologies that correlate in different degrees with the structures seen in the distribution of the ionised gas.The prominent dust disk in NGC4526traces closely the distribution of the gas.The ring-like structure and spiral arms in NGC2974are also followed by dusty structures at the same locations.The dust morphology is less de?ned in NGC2768and NGC4278,but still suggests an orientation for the dust that is sim-ilar to that of the gas distribution.

6The Origin of the ionised gas

The measurement of misalignments between the kinematics of the gaseous and stel-lar components in early-type galaxies has often been used to determine the relative importance of accretion events and the internal production of gas through stellar mass-loss(e.g.Bertola et al.1992).The orientation of the dust relative to that of the stars has also served this purpose(e.g.van Dokkum&Franx1995).In order to quantify the presence of decoupled gaseous components in our sample and to inves-tigate their dependence on environment,we have measured the mean misalignment between the stellar and ionised gas using kinemetry,a generalisation of surface photometry to the higher-order moments of the line-of-sight velocity distribution of galaxies(Krajnovi′c et al.2005b).

In Figure2(solid line)we show the distribution of the average misalignments for the galaxies in our sample of48galaxies with suf?ciently extended emission.The distribution of values appears to be skewed towards small misalignments.How-ever,the fact that there is still a signi?cant fraction of galaxies showing mild to strong misalignments suggests that the ionised gas has not a purely internal origin (in which only small misalignments are expected).The overall shape of the distri-bution remains unchanged when the sample is divided into elliptical and lenticular galaxies.No dependency is found on neither environment nor galaxy luminosity. We do,however,?nd a strong dependence on apparent?attening of the galaxy

Fig.1.SAURON maps for4galaxies representative of the gas properties in the48E and S0galaxies surveyed by the SAURON project(Sarzi et al.2005).From top to bottom:i) the reconstructed total intensity,ii)the stellar velocity,iii)the ionised-gas velocity,iv)the equivalent width of the[O III]emission line in?A(in log units),v)the value of the[O III]/Hβratio(also in log units),and vi)unsharp-masked images obtained from HST observations. The cuts levels are indicated in the box at the right-hand side of each map.The grey boxes on the top?gures indicate the?eld-of-view of the HST images in the last row.Notice how the gas distribution can vary from galaxy to galaxy,and how the kinematic major axis of the ionised gas deviates from that of the stars.The[O III]/Hβratio maps clearly reveal the presence of radial gradients and substructures in the ionization properties of the gas.The low[O III]/Hβvalues corresponding to the dust disk in NGC4526suggest ongoing star formation.

(see Fig.2,bottom panel).It appears that the distribution of misalignments of the most?attened objects accounts for the observed excess of co-rotating over counter-rotating gas and stellar systems in the whole sample.The roundest objects(?<0.2) display a more uniform distribution.This result suggests that rotational support might be important to explain the observed dependence.

Hubble Type

Luminosity 5

Environment 0306090

120150180|φgas - φstars |

Ellipticity Fig.2.Distribution of misalignments between the kinematic stellar and gaseous axes.In all panels the solid line represents the distribution of misalignments for the 48E and S0galaxies.The shaded areas in the different panels represent (from top to bottom):ellipti-cals,galaxies brighter than M ?B =?19.7mag (Efstathiou,Ellis &Peterson,1988),?eld galaxies,and roundest galaxies (?≤0.2).

7Concluding remarks

We have presented some examples of the morphological and kinematical state of the ionised gas in a representative sample of early-type galaxies using data from the SAURON spectrograph at the 4.2m William Herschel Telescope.The results of our analysis reveal a wide range of morphological,but also kinematical structures.It also shows that there must be several mechanisms responsible for the ionisation of the gas,not only across galaxies,but also within galaxies.The presence of dust is common in our sample and is usually accompanied by gas emission.Finally,we studied the distribution of misalignments between the stars and gas in our sample,and conclude that the origin of the ionised gas cannot be purely internal or external.

Acknowledgements

JFB acknowledges support from the Euro3D Research Training Network,funded by the EC under contract HPRN-CT-2002-00305.This work is based on obser-vations obtained at the WHT on the island of La Palma,operated by the Isaac Newton Group at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrof′?sica de Canarias.

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《语言学纲要》名词解释导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思

维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体，即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形

式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。

中国传媒大学语言学及应用语言学专业方向介绍（感谢凯程罗老师对本文的有益指导.) 语言学及应用语言学专业（050102） 1．应用语言学方向应用语言学方向是适应我国应用语言学发展需要设立的研究方向，它以“人机交际”和人际交际的语言理论和技能、技术为主要研究对象。作为跨学科的语言应用学科，它同人文科学、自然科学（数学、物理学、信息科学、计算机科学等）都有密切关系。本方向有社会语言学和计算语言学两个研究领域。社会语言学，重在研究语言在社会生活中的应用。它结合中国社会的文化背景，对语言应用进行多角度、全方位的研究，总结社会生活不同领域（如旅游、交通、商贸、公关、司法、教育等）人际交往中语言应用的特殊规律，对语言实践提供理论指导，并为我国语言文字规范化工作服务。计算语言学是利用计算机对人类自然语言处理和加工的科学，它是适应信息时代的要求而产生和发展起来的一门边缘交叉性学科。机器翻译、自然语言理解、语音识别与合成等都是本方向研究的重要课题，这些课题的研究对人工智能计算机的研制，起着举足轻重的作用。本方向将发挥中国传媒大学文、理、工多科院校、以及与教育部语言应用研究所合作的优势，为二十一世纪的应用语言学培养高层次专门人才。 2．对外汉语教学方向本研究方向以对外汉语教学研究为重点。汉语教学法历来都是汉语言基础理论体系中的重要组成部分，汉语教学法研究，也是汉语言基础理论研究中不可缺少的部分。自现代汉语诞生之日起，其教学过程即随之开始；应用语言学的产生和发展，更进一步推动了汉语教学研究的理论升华。特别是近几十年来，汉语教学研究，无论是对内的，还是对外的，都越来越受到重视。从建立完整的理论体系的角度说，我校有国内著名语言学家为学科带头人的现代汉语语法、修辞研究的深厚基础，最近又增添了应用语言学研究的雄厚实力，如果再加上汉语教学研究理论的参与，必将使汉语语言理论研究体系更趋完善。我校作为全国广播电视人才培养基地，多年来一直担负着为广播电视事业培养专门人才的重要任务。如何在汉语教学中把结构、意义和交际功能三者有机地结合起来，更好地培养学生实际运用语言的能力，也是多年来面临的理论与实际的大问题。随着时代要求的不断提高，矛盾日益突出。汉语教学如何借鉴心理学、教育学等相关学科的研究成果，结合语言应用实际，力求走出一条新路子。对外汉语教学专业人才的需求，近年来不断加大，国内各汉语教学机构为了在来华留学生的市场竞争中占有更多的份额，都纷纷把对外汉语教学高学历师资的竞争放到了首位。此外，全球性“汉语热”方兴未艾，特别是在进入新世纪之后，国内外汉语教学师资的需求量呈上升趋势。本方向将竭力培养对外汉语教学方面的高层次专门人才。 3. 语言信息处理方向语言信息处理是语言学与计算机科学交叉形成的一门新型学科，是应用语言学的重要组成部分。我国“十五”发展规划的重要方针之一，是大力推进信息化进程，以信息化带动工业化。

Various Approaches to Morphology The grammatical description of many, if not all, languages is conveniently divided into two complementary sections: morphology and syntax. Morphology accounts for the internal structure of words. In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description, in a language, of the structure of morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context.It also explores the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.In this passage, I illstrate morphology in several aspects,from the inside formation , the rules of formation.and the main branches of morphology. Many people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of language ,many words can be broken down into still smaller units,called morphemes. Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of speech,others only refine and give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word. As morphemes are pairings of sounds with meanings,there are many complexiities involved, forming a new field by the mane morphophonology. Words could be analyzed into smaller components as they are formed by smaller units. Such as chairman,it is made up of chair and man ,words like boys ,checking ,and disappointment can likewise be further analyzed. They are each made up of boy and –s ,check and –ing ,and dis-. Appoint, and – ment. These smaller compoents are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot be further analyzed. Chair could not be analyzed into ch and air .There are no relations between the parts ch ,air and the whole chair. Another example, the word ―unacceptability‖ can be divided into un-, accept, abil-, and -ity (abil- being a variant of -able). Of these, at least three are minimal grammatical units, in the sense that they cannot be analyzed into yet smaller grammatical units—un-, abil-, and ity. So morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning ,whether it is lexical or grammatical. Although I have mentioned above that morphemes are the smallest units of language in the certain situation. It self could be sub-classified into different types, depending on different criteria. (1)Free morpheme and bound morpheme An important concept in grammar and, more particularly, in morphology is that of free and bound forms. A bound form is one that cannot occur alone as a complete utterance (in some normal context of use). For example, -ing is bound in this sense, whereas wait is not, nor is waiting. Any form that is not bound is free.Those appear alone, or which may make up words by themselves ,are free morphemes, such as apple,open are free morphemes, or mono-morphemic words. And we could simply say that all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Moreover, poly-morphemic words, which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compound, such as headmaster, silkscalf. In contrast, -s in words , ad in adhere must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes. (2)Root ,affix and stem. We have met poly-morphemic words in the paragraphs mentioned above. In this section ,they ,other than compounds ,can be divided into roots and affixes. Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. In other words, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. While the affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added

Chapter Three Morphology形态学一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。

绪论、第一章、第二章一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。

Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Open class word and closed class word Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs Closed class words---- grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning词素 ---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism 总的来说，形态学就是研究英语单词的语言学分支。英文介绍： Chapter 3 Morphology Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Open class word and closed class word Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning ---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

语言学纲要名词解释导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。

中国传媒大学2010年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试语言学理论试题一.论述题。 1.必答题(40分) 就语言规划或语言规范化问题尽你所知进行论述。 2.选答题(30分,任选其一回答) A.就话语(也叫篇章、语篇)研究进行论述。 B.就形式主义语言学和功能主义语言学进行论述。二.分析题(30分,每小题10分) 1.指出下面三个四字格之间的联系,分析形成的原因,并说明各自的表达效果。喜鹊登枝喜上眉梢喜上眉梢 2.下面两组句子,一组可逆,一组不可逆,请从认知角度解释。我后悔死这件事了——这件事后悔死我了我后悔这件事了——★这件事后悔我了 3.运用预设理论解释下面句子。

北京又要打击非法一日游了中国传媒大学2010年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试语言学理论试题二.论述题。 1.必答题(40分) 就语言规划或语言规范化问题尽你所知进行论述。 (1)语言文字的合理发展,对一个国家或民族的发展具有不可估量的作用。国家或社会为了管理社会语言生活,对语言的现状及发展施加有计划有目的的影响以促进语言文字健康发展使其更好的尾社会服务而进行的各种工作就是语言规划。 (2)语言规划涉及的内容很多,主要包括民族共同语的确立和推广,民族共同语的规范和完善,语言选择,语言协调,语言调查,科技术语的统一和标准化,文字的创制和改革等。 (3)①语言文字立法是语言规划的一种体现。《中华人民共和国国家通用语言文字法》是语言政策的法律体现,对于加强语言文字工作有重要意义。②政府对语言的管理和影响表现在官方语言的选择上,外语教育也有语言选择问题,除了语言选择以外还有标准化问题,包括科技术语的标准化和语言规范化。 (4)语言规划的原则:语言规划必须尊重并且符合语言发展的客观规律,符合社会发展的需要,符合广大人民群众的意愿。避免两种倾向:一种是人在语言文字面前无能为力,无所作为;一种是过于夸大人的作用。

导言一,名词解释(分,每小题分) ,研究语言的本质,语言的结构和发展规律. .指我国传统的语文学,包括文字学,音韵学,训诂学三方面的内容. ,个别语言学,以一种(或几种有联系的)语言为研究对象,研究某一种语言的结构. ,静态分析的方法,研究语言相对静止的状态,描写分析语言在某一个时期,某一个阶段的状况,是从横向的方面研究语言. ,动态的角度研究语言发展的历史,观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变,是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史. ,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科. 二,填空题(分,每空分) .中国印度古希腊罗马 .文字学音韵学训诂学 .语音词汇和语义语法 .编码发送传递接收 .历时共时历史描写 .历史比较 .《语言论》 .索绪尔三,问答题(分,每小题分) ①研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果; ②研究目的不同:古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治,哲学,宗教,历史,文学方面的经典著作作注解,比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律. 正因为有这些差别,所以古代的语言学还不是独立的学科,处于附庸地位,而现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科,随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边沿性学科. 人类语言交际的过程,实际上就是信息的传递与接收问题,可分为编码,发送,传递,接收,解码五个阶段.编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句;发送就是把思维成果变成话语,通过发音器官表达出来;传递就是通过空气振动形成声波,把话语传达给受话人;接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话;解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言,理解对方话语的含义,从而完成信息传递接收.如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈,那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍,只是发话人与受话人调换了. (举例说明略,可结合分析任举一个句子作说明.) 语言是伴随着人类一起出现的,是人类社会生活必不可少的,所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性,很早就注意研究语言,所以语言学是古老的,但语言学直到世纪下半叶,产生了历史比较语言学,后来又建立了语言学的各个部门,语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科,同其它学科相比,语言学的确是十分年轻的.语言是社会现象,与社会的政治,经济,文化,历史等密切相关,而语言的发生又与物理,生理,心理等学科密切相关,而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理(如机器翻译,语码转换等)又涉及到数学,计算机科学,所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系.正因为如此,随着语言学与别的学科的交融,又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科,如社会语言学,心理语言学,统计语言学,话语语言学,数理语言学,宇宙语言学等等,这些也体现了语言学是一门年轻的学科. 语言学的作用主要表现在以下几个方面:①学习语言文字是掌握科学技术,提高文化水平的基础,而要学好用好语言,就必须利用语言学的研究成果;②制定语言文字的有关政策,制定语言规范,都要在对语言进行充分研究的基础上进行,而语言学的研究成果正好可以作指导;③新兴技术的出现扩大了语言学的应用范围.至于个人,同样可以利用语言学的成果,比如学习一种语言或方言,最好的办法是找到所学语言同自己母语的各方面的对应规律,这样可以收到事半功倍的效果,这就需要利用语言学的研究成果. (结合实际部分可以根据自己的学习,工作或生活经历举例) 语言学首先可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学,一般所说的语言学,主要是指理论语言学.根据研究对象的不同,理论语言学又分普通语言学和专语语言学(具体语言学).普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.专语语言学以个别的,具体的语言为研究对象.探讨研究某一种语言的规律.从是静态研究还是研究语言的历史看,又分历时语言学和共时语言学:历时语言学研究具体语言的发展历史,是纵向研究,比如汉语史研究,共时语言学研究具体语言在某一时代的状态(相对静止的状态),规律,对之进行客观的描述,是横向研究.如描写语言学,又分描写语音学,描写语汇学,描写语法学等分支学科,现代汉语就是共时语言学. .在历史语言学产生以前,语言学

中国传媒大学2006年应用语言学考研试题语言学理论解释下列概念互补分布 2、语义特征 3、屈折语 4、自源文字 5、隐喻二、单项选择题 1、历史比较语言学出现在--------- A、19世纪中叶 B、20世纪初 C、19世纪初 D、20世纪中叶 3、从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位是----------- A、音渡 B、音素 C、音位 D、音节 4、[p、t’、ts、k]这一组音的共同的区别特征是----------- A、不送气 B、清音 C、塞音 D、擦音 5、下列词语中的“子”是实语素的是---------- A、鸽子 B、傻子 C、莲子 D、日子 6、下列说法中正确的是 A、“老”可以同“新、旧、少、嫩”等构成反义词 B、“大”和“小”是绝对对立的反义词 C、“红”与“黑”这对反义词具有非此即彼的关系 D、“冷”和“热”是相对反义词 7、英语代词“我”，作主语时写作I，作宾语时写作me。这种变化时语法范畴中---------的表现。 A、性 B、树 C、格 D、人称 8、关于社会方言的形成，下列说法不正确的一项是--------- A、社会方言大多是在语言的相互接触中形成的 B、社会方言是随着社会的社群分化而产生的 C、一种语言的内部有可能形成社会方言 D、一种方言的内部有可能形成社会方言 9、克里奥尔语是指----------- A、用于特殊交际场合的皮钦语 B、功能单一，只能用于口头交际的一种混合语 C、结构简单，不可能得到充分发展的一种混合语 D、母语分化的皮钦语 10、下列各组内三个合成词构词类型不一致的是----------- A、天地宇宙阴阳 B、鱼子花儿锄头 C、改善揭露纠正 D、爸爸哥哥姐姐三、分析题 1、请证明下列各组音素在汉语普通话中属于不同音位，还是同一音位的不同变体。[ t ]—[ t’ ] [ b ]—[ p ] [ i ]—[ u ] [ a ]—[ α ] 2用层次分析法分析下列词组（要求分析到词）词汇是语言中反映社会发展变化最敏感的要素。像流水一般晶莹剔透的月光。 3指出下列句子中划线词语的语义指向小王把酒喝光了。新买的球鞋也踢坏了。 4设置不同的语境，使“我等你半天了”这个语句形式表达不同的意思，呈现不同的交际效果（至少三个）。 5判断正误并说明理由。语言是语言，言语是言语，二者完全不同，没有任何关系。任何一种符号，都是由形式和内容两方面组成的。

Chapter 3 Morphology 1. What is word? ?Definition: A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. ? A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations. 1.1 Identification of words ?Stability:stable linguistic units. chairman, but not *manchair ?Relative uninterruptibility:though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment. But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary ... ? A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself. Sentence---the maximum free form Word---the minimum free form, the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance ?Eg --Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly. Hi. Wonderful. ?词的特征词是由词素构成，比词素高一级的句法单位。词具有以下特征：一词具有固定的语音形式。二词具有一定的意义。词可以分属实义语类和功能语类。实义语类主要表示词汇意义，包括名词，动词，形容词，副词和介词。功能语类主要表示语法意义，起连接或附着作用，包括限定词，助动词，代词，标句词和连词。三词是能够独立运用的最小的语言单位。 2 Classification of words 2.1 Variable and invariable words ?V ariable words:One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, mats ?Invariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 2.2 Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words:express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions,

导言 *中国、印度、希腊、罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地之。 *形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。 *语言本身的构造很复杂，对它的研究大致可以分为语言、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。 *运用语言交际的过程是瞬间的事情，但却包含着一系列复杂的问题。如果借用信息论的术语来说，这一过程大体上可以分为“编码—发送—传递—接收—解码”五个阶段。第一章 *语言研究的任务就是要把说话中反复使用的材料和规则找出来，把那些隐藏在无数话语中的坚守不见尾的语言找出来，使它的整体和每一片鳞甲都清清楚楚地展现在人们的面前。这当然是复杂细致的任务。 *除了语言之外，人们还可以使用其他的交际工具：文字，旗语，红绿灯，电报代码，数字符号，化学公式等。人们在使用语言进行交际的时候，不但要动嘴，而且要面部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都会参加进来。（非语言：手、眼神） *思维能力是全人类共同的，语言的各组民族不同的。 *为什么语言是人类最重要的交际工具？ 1、语言是最灵活的，最方便的，信息量最大的，所以是最重要的。语言是组成社会不可少的因素，人与人之间的联系要靠语言来维持。 2、语言是为满足人类交际的组要而产生的，其他动物是没有的。 3、其他的交际工具是建立在一定的语言基础上的语言或语言成分的代用品，而且都有特殊的服务领域。第二章 *符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号标记。符号应该具备的条件：约定俗成、重复使用。语言符号的特点是：任意性和线条性。 *语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。语言必须是一种经济有效而又富于弹性和灵活性的装置。这装置的重要特点就是分层。 *语言的底层是一套音位，一种语言的音位的数目虽然只有几十个却能构成数目众多的组合，这些组合为语言符号准备了形式的部分。语言的上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又氛围若干级。第一级是语素，意义在这里被装进形式的口袋，成了音义结合的最小的符号。第二级是由语素构成的词，第三级是由词构成的句子。词和句子都是符号的序列。 *组合关系和聚合关系是语言两种最根本关系。第三章 *音素：是从音节中划分出来的最小的语音单位。（从音质角度划分出来） *音标：记录音素的标写符号。国际音标：是国际语言协会于1888年制定的并开始使用的一套记录音素的标写符号。 *语音的发音---传递---感知三个环节，分别对应于语音的生理---物理---心理三个方面的属性，由发音学---音响学---听觉语音学三门学科加以研究，标志着人们研究语言的的进展过程。三个环节，三个方面，三门学科的研究都是自然科学和语言学的交界领域，都要利用大量的实验手段。生理、物理、心理的研究可以说是语音的自然属性的研究。 *元音和辅音的区别是什么？ 1、气流是否受阻，发元音气流不受阻，辅音受阻。 2、发音器官紧张状况。发元音时各器官的各部分都保持均衡紧张，发辅音时只有形成阻碍的那一部分特别紧张。 3、气流强弱不同，发元音气流弱，发辅音气流强。 *音位：是具体语言中有区别的语音形式的作用的最小语音单位。音位的分析对拼音文字的

CH 5 Morphology 的上課筆記 1. What is morphology? 2. How to use it? Who is it for? 3. When to use it? 4. Are there rules in it? 5. Is there an infix in English? 6. The use/ significance of the morphology. Morphology (構詞學) is (1) the study of morphemes and their different forms (allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation, i.e., the English word unfriendly is formed from friend , the adjective-forming suffix -ly and the negative prefix un-. (2) a morphemic system(詞素系統). Morphology helps people recognize possible words. 有沒有新字的出現？例子1： Bug → a possible word Bog → a possible word Sog → not a possible word 例子2：木神 → Morphology ( it depends on people)

(1) 昨晚我的ㄅㄧㄤˋ痛得睡不著。 →從這句話大概知道句子要表達意思：某人遭受疼痛之苦，但不是能清楚知道每個字(individual words)的意思。在訓練聽力時，是訓練學生get the main concept (idea) in the context/ dialogue. (2) 我的手臂上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，很癢。 →ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是瘤或青春痘。 (3) 我的腳上長了一個ㄅㄧㄤˋ，不舒服。 →ㄅㄧㄤˋ可能是皮膚病。 (1)→(2)→(3)：從不同的context，慢慢會懂“ㄅㄧㄤˋ”的意義，但還是有點模糊。直到你看到實物的那一天，才能真正了解其意義。因為文字本身就是抽象的，所以如果用文字去表達一個抽象的概念，會很難懂；但若是用具體的實物來講解，會比較容易明白。教單字→可以把圖片運用在單字教學上。 Morphology可以幫助學習新單字。例子4： A: Have you seen ―wuggles‖ before? B: What are ―wuggles‖ ? A: They are four-legged animals. B: What do they look like? Dogs, cats, rabbits, or horses? A: No, they look like spiders. B: They are six-legged insects. 因為―wuggles‖(a possible word)符合造字原則，所以B會問What are ―wuggles‖ ?