英语语言学名词解释
Phonetics: the study of speech sounds, which is part of phonology and provides the means for describing speech sounds, and it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. Phonology is concerned with the linguistic knowledge of speech and the ways in which these speech sounds form systems and patterns in human language.
Consonants: produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
Vowels: produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
Apart from complementary distribution, a phoneme may sometimes have free variants （自由变体）.
Phonological process: a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts
Assimilation: is often used synonymously with coarticulation.
If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation(先期协同发音).
If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation（后滞协同发音）, as is the case of map.
suprasegmental features超音段特征: the aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.
Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.
Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.
Morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.
E.g. inter-nation-al-ism, friend ly
An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).
E.g. para-lingu al, pseudo-nym, real-ize, book s etc.
A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
E.g. friend s, friendship s, girlfriend s etc.
Inflectional affixes: only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem and do not change the word class of the word they attach to. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final.
Compound: it refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.
Syntax is the study of how sentences are structured or how words are combined with others to form sentences and in what order.
The syntactic rules in a grammar must at least account for:
?the grammaticality of sentences
?word order
?structural ambiguity
?grammatical relations
?whether different structures have differing meanings or the same meaning
?the creative aspect of language
Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.
It is easier to see the parts and subparts of the sentence in a tree diagram.
Semantics Semantics is generally considered to be the studyof meaning in language. Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units,words and sentences in particular. Connotative meaning: what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.
Thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.
There are some difficulties in the approach to analyze the meaning of a word in terms of semantic component s：One difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning; consequently they will have different sets of semantic components Secondly, some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.
Thirdly, the examples we have seen are only concerned with the neatly organized parts of the vocabulary. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.
Meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.
Reference: how language refers to this external world.
Sense: the way people relate words to each other within the framework of their language Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation in meaning.
Hyponymy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate (上义词), and the lower terms, the members, hyponyms（下义词). The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality(组合性原则). Idioms: cannot be built up as the sum of its parts. Idioms are phrases derived by metaphor and other types of semantic extension.
Entailment 蕴含Sometimes knowing the truth of one sentence entails or necessarily implies the truth of another sentence.
Contradiction is negative entailment, that is, where the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.
presupposition 预设In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or ps) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse.
?Semantic meaning:
?the more constant, inherent side of meaning
?Pragmatic meaning:
?the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context
A locutionary act以言指事is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
An illocutionary act以言行事is the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
A perlocutionary act以言成事is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.
The difference between vowels and consonants : In order to produce
consonants you have to set up an obstalce course inside your mouth to block the airstream.
Vowels are made with more or less open mouth and without blocking the airstream In all languages there are vowels and consonants. Consonants are created through pulmonic utterance that is created by stopped or obstructed air flow through the mouth. Vowels are created through unobstructed air flow through the mouth. (Lynden Rodriguez)
Conversational implicature: as a type of implied meaning
deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context under the guidance of the CP and its maxims
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.360docs.net/doc/f1128909.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.360docs.net/doc/f1128909.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.360docs.net/doc/f1128909.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
英语语言学名词解释(2)
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
英语语言学总结
第一章 All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。 Language is a means of verbal communication. Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征 Design Features: Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联 系。 1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性 2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。 Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结 构的方法。 3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性 Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特 性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合 规则。 Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。 Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. 源于二层性和递归性 Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往 时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或 观点。比如现在说孔子。 语言功能： 1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能 2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人 的社会地位，比如仪式。 3) Emotive Function感情功能 4) Phatic communion寒暄功能 5) Recreational Function娱乐功能
最新新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter-Three-Morphology
Chapter Three Morphology形态学 一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。 二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、 形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
英语语言学名词解释
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
英语语言学讲解
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
英语语言学部分名词解释(英文版)
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole. 3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 4. prescriptive: If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should not say). 5. descriptive: If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.(09C) 6. synchronic study: The description of language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. (06C/ 04) 7. diachronic study: It’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C) 8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 9. parole :Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 10. competence : The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（08F/09C）linguistic competence: universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. 11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 14. arbitrariness: Arbitrariness refers to there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.(08C) 15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users. 16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever of sound, which is meaningless, and higher lever of meaning.