英语写作---lesson 4-paragraph writing

Lesson 4

段落写作

Paragraph Writing

Questions to consider:

What is a paragraph?

What is the structure of a typical English paragraph? What kind of paragraphs are strong / good paragraphs?

Paragraph

a group of sentences that deal with the same

subject or topic

several related sentences that support one main idea, which is limited to and focused in one sentence.

段落的结构

(paragraph structure)

主题句（topic sentence) TS （+重述(restating) R） +发展句（Supporting/developing sentences) D

+结论句（concluding sentence）C

基本结构：TS-(R)-D1-D2-D3-(C)

主题句：段首(普遍)，提出主题

重述句：放在主题句后面，使它更具体，明确。

展开句：段中，论证，阐明，支持主题

结论句：段尾，对段落的中心思想进行重述，总结或评论。

Einstein was a purely and exclusively a theorist. He didn’t have the slightest interest in the practical application of his ideas and the theories. His E=mc2 is probably the most famous equation in history—yet Einstein wouldn’t walk down the street to see a reactor create atomic energy. He won the Nobel Prize for his Photoelectric Theory, a series of equations that he considered relatively minor in importance he didn’t have any curiosity in observing how his theory made TV possible.

Friends are very important to us. They share our joys and sorrows, and make our life meaningful. A life without friends is not worth living. Friendship is like sunlight to the human spirit; we cannot flower and grow without it. So we should make as many friends as possible.

发展句不能简单的重复主题句的思想

Topic sentence

What is a topic sentence?

What are the functions of the topic sentence?

What are the two parts of a topic sentence?

What kind of topic sentences are “good” topic sentences?

Where can one usually find the topic sentences? Topic sentence

(governor)

a statement that declares the main idea of a paragraph,

and limits the topic to some specific points, controls the development of the following sentences.

主题句的构成

主题topic +主导思想controlling idea：

Topic: 中心事件，问题，解决的任务，论点-- subject Controlling idea: 作者的看法，观点，对主题的具体限定-- attitude towards the subject

主题句的特点：

1）段落主题句只能有一个主题。

2）段落主题句必须具备一个主导思想，即段落主题句中必须包含一个等待发展的思想；

3）段落主题句必须具有一定的限定性。其限定内容有助于段落的铺开和抒发，避免段落在展开过程中偏离主题方向。

Controlling idea

The voters supported the candidate.

The voters passively supported the candidate.

The voters found several reasons for supporting the candidate.

A dictionary is useful tool for a college student.

Poor handwriting can often get you into trouble.

Taking a young child to lunch requires patience.

Enrolling in college can be very surprising.

Electricity is an essential part of our modern life.

What + how/what specific

Doing housework is very boring.

My trip to the botanical garden taught me a lot.

主题句直接点明某事物的作用，优点或看法。

Topic: Solar Energy

Solar energy can contribute to our future energy supply.

主题句指出人们对某主题的论述要点。

Topic: Solar Energy

Solar energy is getting popular for several reasons.

A good topic sentence

Grammatically correct

---limited to or focused on one specific main idea

A good topic sentence is usually one with a well-defined controlling idea that can be reasonably developed within a paragraph.

General topic: television

Limited topic: television commercials

Topic sentence: Too many television commercials

can be a disaster.

General topic: television

Limited topic: effects on people

Topic sentence: Television has more positive effects than negative effects.

For a university student in China, living on the campus is beneficial to his study.

Winter is the most boring season of the year.

Buying insurance is a good way of investment.

1) It must take the form of a complete sentence

一定要注意，主题句不能使用短语代替。

2) 主题句不能太笼统：Marriage is different.

Topic sentence: I love our school campus.

这个主题句没有限制一个合适的范围,包括的内容面太宽,不好下笔，因此可改为: I love our school campus for

several reasons.

Marriage is different from that of my grandmother’s time.

3) 主题句涉及的面也不能太窄,否则就没有展开讨论的余地。

Topic sentence: I go to college to make friends.

此类涉及面太窄的主题句就不好进一步发挥,这一主题句可改为: I go to college for several reasons.

t opic sentence ≠simple fact

F act: Bill works nine hours a day and then goes to school three hours a night.

T opic sentence: Bill is ambitious.

F act: Diana has blue eyes and long blond hair. T opic: Diana is beautiful.

Fact: Susan paid $3.95 for her new dress.

Topic sentence: Susan loves to shop for bargains. Fact: I know Mr. Charles.

Topic sentence: Mr. Charles is the meanest man I ever know.

A good topic sentence

＊a sentence rather than a phrase or a fragment

＊neither too broad nor too specific

＊focusing on one single idea

＊Good topic sentence: clear in idea and easy to organize

I was employed last summer by the KFC near my school. I’d rather work indoors than outdoors.

I work part time while going to school.

Susan is confused.

Susan is undecided about getting married.

Susan does not want a career.

_____________________________The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers—unread, untouched. The second has a great many books—a few of them read

through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. The third has a few books or many—every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribble in from front to back.

There are three kinds of book owners.

__________________The tables where the workers sat were very high and uncomfortable.

Except for a half hour at lunch time, there were no breaks in the day to relieve the boring work. There was no music. The walls of the workrooms were a dull gray color. I was amazed that the workers hadn’t gone on strike.

The working conditions were poor.

__________________In towns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easier than it used to be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods----everything. Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the things that we use and buy and sell.

Our life today depends very much on energy.

Position of the topic sentence

at the beginning

at the end

in the middle of a paragraph

implied or suggested

(not written out at all)

position of the topic sentence

一，段落的开端，预示或概述所要展开的内容。

结构：

TS-D1-D2-D3

绝大多数的说明文，以论文均采用这种模式，这是最广泛的一种模式。

下面逐渐扩大，给主题句的论点提供细节和论证

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the Dawen River, which is wide and full of sand and silt. Also, on the edge of the Tai’an is Mount Tai, which a world-famous because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. It stands two hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years old.

主题句放在段末

先从许多细节出发，逐渐收拢，一步步归纳到中心论点，用一个主题句画龙点睛，把前面陈述的一切概括起来，做出结论。

结构模式：

D1-D2-D3-TS

English is spoken by pilots and airports control operators on all the airways of the world. Over 70 percent of the world’s mail is written in English. More than 60 percent of the world’s radio programs are in

English. Clearly English is an international language. 同时位于段首和段末：用于强调本段的重要性

The end restatement is more strongly expresses than the beginning topic sentence.

Good manners are important in all countries, but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country. Americans eat with knives and folks; the Japanese's eat with chopsticks. Americans say “hi” when they meet; Japanese men do not. On the surface, it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan, and in a way this is true, but in all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country.

位于段中：除了概括本段的中心意思外，亦起承上启下的过渡作用。

serve as a connector or transition.

If you were planning to buy a television set, the following advertisement would certainly draw your attention: “Color TV. Only ＄79 Two day sale.However, when you go to the store ready to buy. You may discover that they are sold out. But the shop assistant is quick to tell you that he has another model. A much better set which is “just right for you” It costs ＄395. This sales method is called “bait and switch”. Buyers are baited with a sales advertisement, and then they are switched to another more expensive one. Buying things on sale needs careful consideration of the goods and the reason for the sale.

主题句隐藏于文中。

用于不需要概括，读者也能轻易理解的段落内容，多为描写和叙事文。只要中心突出，意思紧凑，也可达到好的写作效果，但不建议初学者使用。

Dr. Joan T. Freyberg has concluded that daydreaming contributes to intellectual growth. It also improves concentration, attention span, and the ability to get along with others, she said. In an experiment with school children, she found that daydreaming let children to pay more attention to details. They have more happy feelings. Another researcher reported that daydreaming seemed to produce improved self-control and creative abilities.

Homework

1. Preview the ways of developing a paragraph.

2. topic for writing:

generation gap;

new ways of building a house;

the housing problem in china

Supporting Details Searching

Group Work:

Topic sentence: I easily give up doing my homework.

I always start to feel hungry and go into the kitchen for

a snack.

I will leave my studying to investigate any noise I hear.

While I study, I try to listen to the radio with one ear.

I often leave my desk to go to the mirror, to comb my

hair.

Often, in the middle of an assignment, I decide that my shoes need polishing and do that instead of the assignment in front of me.

段落的发展

在主题句确定后，需要围绕主题中心扩展成段落。扩展的方式有多种，本节重点介绍排列顺序、比较和对照、因果推理、分类和举例。

The Topic Sentence

(if possible with link to previous paragraph)

Followed by

Paragraph Development Sentences

(expansion/explanation/

comment/illustration)

Followed by

The Concluding Sentence

(if possible with link to next paragraph) Developing sentences

1. 清晰详实clear in details

2. 条理清楚clear in logic

3. 长度适中suitable length

Concluding Sentence

1. Summary of the main idea

2. Restatement of the topic Sentence

段落的展开

(ways of developing a paragraph)

列举法(enumeration)

TS-D1-D2：facts, supporting details or ideas: to support,

罗列具体事实，力求典型充分

Phrases for listing

其顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行排列。

In China, bicycle is very popular and is welcomed by almost everyone. The reasons are as follows: First, a bike is cheap, and most people can afford it. A bike costs from only about 200 yuan to 500 yuan . Second, riding a bike is a good exercise, and it can help us to keep fit. Third, bikes don’t c ause air pollution, so that people in a city will have a nice environment to live in. Finally, a bike doesn’t need a large parking space. For these reasons, many people in China like riding bikes very much.

________(the singer/footballer, etc.) is my idol. I admire him/her for several reasons.

叙述法description

程序法(developing by process)

步骤程序的逻辑先后，使用过度词语衔接

The developers in a process paragraph must present steps precisely in the order that will bring about the desired result.

Arriving at the airport

A. check in your baggage

B. go th the desk of the airline connered and hand over your luggage

C. the man at the counter checks both ticket and passport

D.he weighs your suitcase and places in on the conveyor belt

E. pay your airport tax

F. say good bye to any friends or family menbers who may have come to see you off

G. pass into the restricted area to go through the security check point

H. go through immigration if you are going abroad

i. Climb the steps to board the airplane.

E_A_B_C_D_F_G_H_I

比较法( developing by comparison)

for similarities

a. subject-by-subject

块式结构

TS-A1-A2-A3-Transitional markers-B1-B2-B3

甲---- 对比点1

对比点2

对比点3

…………..

乙----- 对比点1

对比点2

对比点3

b. point-by-point点式结构

TS-A1-Transitional markers -B1-A2-Tm-B2-A3- Tm -B3

甲对比点1

乙对比点1

甲对比点2

乙对比点2

甲对比点3

乙对比点3

对比法(developing by contrast)

for differences

对比主要是揭示两种或两种以上同类事物的不同点。分为整体对比和交替对比。

My father and my mother

Chinese and American attitudes towards money Transitional words used

Comparison

Like, similarly, in the same way, in the same manner

Compared with

Be the same as

Be similar to

Contrast

Unlike，In contrast to

On the one hand, on the other hand

on the contrary，however, nevertheless, whereas, while

But, yet, although, even though,

Be different from, differ from

举例法(exemplification)

to explain difficult, abstract, or unfamiliar concept, make it concrete and specific, and make the writing interesting.

举例说明，力求典型形象

Phrases

for example, for instance, to illustrate, take…for example, as an example, as a case in point, as another example/instance, as a final example, let me illustrate, let me cite as proof, according to statistics, according to statistical evidence.

A. Flotence Nightingale dreamed of becoming a nurse

B. For these notable achievers, it appears that their daydreams came true.

C. The most remarkable thing about daydreaming may be its usefulness in shaping our future lives as we want them to be.

D. He maintained that “you can imagine your future”

E. Industrialist Henry J. Kaiser believed that much of his success was due to the possitive use of daydreaming.

F. The young Thomas Edison pictured himself as an inventor. C_E_D_A_F_B

Develop the following topic sentence into a paragraph, by using listing or exemplification.

There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. ____________

There are a number of ways for us to keep fit.

First, no matter how busy we are, we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. Second, it is important to keep good hours. For example, if we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up early, we can avoid overworking ourselves and get enough sleep. Finally, entertainment is also necessary so

that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructions, we will certainly be in good health.

因果法

( developing by cause and effect)

原因分析型：在主题句中先介绍某一事件，然后对该事件发生的原因进行分析。

结果分析型：在主题句中先点明所要讨论的事件，然后分析已经或将要发生的结果。

客观正确，合符逻辑，符合常理

因果段落常用的词语

because, for one reason or anther, for the reason that, owing to ,due to, now that, in that, that is why and so on.

Single cause-multiple effects

Ts-effect 1-effect 2..-c

Single effect-multiple causes

Ts-cause 1-cause 2..-c

causal chain cause effect

Ts- A cause

B effect(cause)

C effect (cause)

D effect(cause)…

-CS

Because of pollution, my hometown is not as beautiful as it used to be.

Why did you fail in your exam.

You drink alcohol.

Alcohol turns off your antidiuretic hormore抗利尿激素, which makes your cells absorb water.

Your body passes all the liquid you drink right through, instead of absorbing some of it (which is why you visit the bathroom so much while you are drinking).

Your cells slowly dry up, including your brain cells, as the night wears on.

In the morning, you have a headache, a dry mouth, and furry teeth, all of which are caused by thirsty cells: a hangover.

分类法(developing by classification)

Grouping things into classes or categpries according to a certain criterion.

分类法将写作素材中许多不同的人，事物，思想等分门别类，然后逐一阐述。

注意要合乎事理和逻辑，不能有交叉和重叠。

Phrases

Kind, class, type, category, aspect, part, division, classify, divide and so on.

Four principles:

Consistency:the same criterion:

News paper: morning, evening, weekly

Language:Chinese, English, Body language

Completeness: include all possible members

College undergraduates: freshmen, sophomores, juniors, seniors

Avoidance of overlapping

freshmen, sophomores, juniors,English major

Balance: in form: parallel

in meaning：

sports: racing, jogging, football

and in length as possible:

定义法( developing by definition)

借助已知的词语和知识，通过描写，举例，对比等手段，对一个陌生的术语，未知的事物加以解释，说明，界定从而发展成段落的写法叫定义法。

下定义必须抓住事物的本质特征，而非罗列表面现象。

Formal definition:The term, its class and its distinguishing qualities

A bookstore is where books are sold.

A bookstore is a shop where books are sold. Homework

What is honesty/ freedom/ love/ happiness/ beauty?