新编简明英语语言学教程-第二版-整理

新编简明英语语言学教程-第二版-整理
新编简明英语语言学教程-第二版-整理

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)

2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.

(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )

https://www.360docs.net/doc/014317626.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.

5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.

i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.

6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory

7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time

3) speech(口语)Writing(书面语)

These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)

https://www.360docs.net/doc/014317626.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.

It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.

9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.

It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )

https://www.360docs.net/doc/014317626.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language

11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)

traditional grammar and modern linguistics

1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive

2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.

3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language.

1.the descriptive function.

2. the expressive function

3.the social function

Chapter 2: Phonology音系学

phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;

it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.

The three branches of phonetics

(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)

(2.)Auditory phonetics(听觉语音学)

(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)

2. Speech organs: three important areas

⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;

⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;

⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.

The principle source such modifications is the tongue.

The tongue is the most flexible.

International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.

Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.

Aspirated and unaspirated

1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form

patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

4. Phone, phoneme, allophone

A phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.

The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].

A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;

it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].

Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments

sequential rule,

⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a

particular language.

⑵Assimilation rule(同化规则): rule assimilating one sound to another by

copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.

⑶Deletion rule(省略规则): rule governing the deletion of a sound in a

certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.

6. Suprasegmental features(超切分特征)

⑴Stress

Word stress and sentence stress

⑵Tone声调

Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.

English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.

⑶Intonation语调

When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.

English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:

falling tone (matter of fact statement)

rising tone (doubts or question)

the fall-rise tone (implied message)

the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)

For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.

Chapter 3: Morphology

1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of words

and the rules by which words are formed

2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.

3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.

4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another

one.

5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme

Chapter 4: Syntax

Syntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that

govern the formation of sentences.

Word-level categories

1,Major lexical categories

2. minor lexical categories

To determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed

1.meaning

2.inflection

3.distribution.

Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizers

D-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties

S-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .

Chapter 5: Semantics

Semantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

1)The naming theory(命名论)

Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.

It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.

words are just names or labels for things.

2)The conceptualist view(意念论)

It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3)Contextualism(语境论)

①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:

②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation

③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.

④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in me aning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.

4) Behaviorism(行为主义论)

Bloomfield

①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.

②The story of Jack and Jill:

Jill Jack

S_________r--------s_________R

3. Sense and reference

①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

4. Major sense relations

Synonymy(同义关系)

Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.

Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词

complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare

Homonymy(同音/同形异义)

Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,

(1)Homophones(同音异义): When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.

e.g. rain/reign.

(2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.

e.g. tear v. / tear n.

(3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.

e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.

Hyponymy(下义关系)

Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

eg.superordinate: flower

hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily

Antonymy(反义关系)

the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning

1) Gradable antonyms(等级反义词)----there are often intermediate forms

between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …

2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)----the denial of one member of

the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …

3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)----exhibits the reversal of the

relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …

2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:

1.grammatical meaning

2. semantic meaning, e.g.

selectional restrictions.

Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules

eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others

Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (B ritish G.

Leech).

Chapter 6: Pragmatics

1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to

effect successful communication.

Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.

What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning

If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;

if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.

⑴Austin’s new model of speech acts

Utterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.

3)Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)

The maxim of quantity (数量准则)

Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). (使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。)

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。)

he maxim of quality (质量准则)

Do not say what you believe to be false.(不要说自己认为不真实的话。)

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。)

The maxim of relation(关联准则)

Be relevant.(说话要贴切。)

The maxim of manner (方式准则)

Avoid obscurity of expression. (避免晦涩的词语。)

Avoid ambiguity. (避免歧义。)

Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity) (说话要简短,避免累赘。)

Be orderly. (说话要有条理。)

Chapter 8

Sociolinguistics 社会语言学The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

speech variety 言语变体refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.

Linguistic repertoire语言库the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.

Halliday’s register theory.

according to Halliday (British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”

Register语域the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation is a Register

field of discourse, 话语范围It can be either technical or non-technical. tenor of discourse,话语意旨It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question

mode of discourse话语方式It refers to the means of communication Five stages of formality

Intimate Casual Consultative Formal Frozen

Bilingualism双语现象

In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.

diglossia According to Ferguson (1959), refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism.

chapter 9

culture文化in a broad sense, reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. in a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.

the relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.

discourse communities 话语社会the common ways in which members of the social group use similar language to meet their needs.

linguistic relativity 语言相对性to put it simply, different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, and so they think and speak differently

an linguistic sign may simultaneously have a

denotativ meanings.e,

connotative meanings.,

iconic meanings.

three forms of culture contact are identified:

acculturation,

assimilation,

amalgamation

through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B,thus bringing about cultural diffusion

chapter 10

language acquisition语言习得refers to a child's acquisition of his mother tongue.

three different theories concerning ho language is learned:

the behaviorist,

the innatist,

the interationist.

Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known known as language acquisition device or o https://www.360docs.net/doc/014317626.html,ter Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar.

the interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.

critical period Hypothesis 关键期假说Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time —a specific and limited time period for language acquisition. chapter 11

second language acquisition 第二语言习得refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language

interlanguage 中介语was established as learners 's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.

among the three important characteristcs:systematicity, permeability, fossilization

input hypothesis输入假说: Krashen

Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving "comprehensible input "

chapter 12

neurlinguistics 神经语言学is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language.

it includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stores, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language

it is the cerebral cortex 大脑皮层that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world and it is within the human cortex that the secrets of language represention and prossing are to be found. animals, reptiles and amphibians, for example, have no cortex at all

most right-handed individuals are said to be left lateralized for language. the case with left-handed people are even more complex,few left-handers have language localization in the right hemisphere. rather they tend to show

significant language representation in both hemisphere. thus left-handers are generally less lateralized for language.

Broca's area

Psycholinguistics 心里语言学is the study of language processing. it is concerned with the process of language comprehension and production.

陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】

第8章英语语言的应用(I) I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. (人大2004研) 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. (清华2001研,清华2000研) 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为,表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的,既不陈述事实,也不描述情况,且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.(对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin

C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释,其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) (南京大学2007研) A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为,而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. (西安外国语学院2006研) A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的

新编地图学教程复习资料

地图的基本特征是:地理信息的载体,数学法则的结构,有目的的图形概括和符号系统的运用。地图的功能:地图信息的载负功能,地图的传递功能,地图的模拟功能,地图的认知功能(图形认知和空间认知)。 地图:是遵循相应的数学法则,将地球上的地理信息,通过科学的概括,并运用符号系统表示在一定载体上的图形,以传递他们的数量和质量在空间和时间上的分布规律和发展变化。 .国家基本比例尺1:100万、1:50万、1:25万、1:10万、1:5万、1:2.5万、1:1万、1:5千这八种。 地图类型:按尺度划分、按区域范围划分、按地图图形划分、按地图维数划分、 虚地图:存在于人脑中或电脑中的地图。实地图例如:纸质地图,屏幕地图、地球仪。 地图的应用:经济建设、科学研究、国防建设、政治文化、教育及日常生活。 现代地图的生产,可以分为实测成图和编绘成图两种,后者包括:常规编图、遥感制图、数字制图。 第二章 法线是测量地球的基准线。 地理坐标是用经线、纬线、经度、纬度表示地面点位的球面坐标。经纬度有三种提法:天文经纬度、大地经纬度,地心经纬度 在地图学中,认为大地经纬度来定义地理坐标更好、因为大地经纬度定义的地理坐标,是在规整的椭球面上构建的,每条经纬线投影到平面皆呈直线或平滑曲线,便于地图投影的研究与应用。 大地控制网简称大地网,由平面控制网和高成控制网组成。平面控制网一般可由三角测量或导线测量完成,高程控制网:一种称绝对高程,另一种称:相对高程。 投影,数学上的含义是两个面(平面或曲面)上的点与点(或线与线)的对应关系。地图投影的变形具体变现为以下三个方面:长度(距离)变形、角度(形状)变形和面积变形 地图投影的分类:(1按地图投影的构成方法分类:几何投影(方位投影、圆柱投影、圆锥投影)根据球面与投影面的位置不同可分为正轴方位投影、横轴方位投影、斜轴方位投影。2)按投影变形性质分类(等角投影、等积投影、任意投影) 等角航线与大圆航线 投影选择依据:制图区域的地理位置、形状和范围,比例尺,地图的内容,出版方式、 方位投影适用于区域轮廓大致为圆形的地图正方位投影适用于两极地区图,圆锥投影适用于编制出于中纬地区沿线方向东西延伸地域的地图 地图比例尺的含义:我们把地图上所表示的空间尺度。比例尺的几种表现形式:数字比例尺、文字比例尺(又称说明比例尺)、图解比例尺 第三、四章 数据分布的量表的量表法可分为:定名、顺序、间距、和比率四种,它们各自适用于一种或多种数学的处理方法。数据处理的三种方法:量表法、两种现象的相关分析、回归残差制图 地图学概括的实质,是在制图过程中对地图数据和图解形式经过科学化处理,使其能表现制图区域的基本特征和制图现象的基本的、典型的面貌和主要特点 影响地图学概括的因素:地图的用途与主题对地图概括的影响,地图比例尺对地图概括的影响、制图区域的地理特征对地图概括的影响,制图数据质量对地图概括的影响,制图图解限制对地图概括的影响。 地图概括的内容:选取和简化:资格法、定额法、区域指标法。简化就是显示空间数据的重要特征,删除不重要的细部。数量特征简化:其目的将是空间数据按数量排序进行分级,以等差分级,等比分级或任意分级处理。分级的等级愈多,概括程度愈低。数量特征的简化主要表现为减少数量分级,增大各等级间的数值间距。夸张包括:不以比例尺的放大和移位。符号化,数据的符号化,其实质是空间数据的可视化,是地图概括的最终结果的体现。 第五章 基本视觉变量包括:形状变量尺寸变量、方向变量、颜色变量、网纹变量。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》章期末复习

Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 1.1.1定义 语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.(语音学) The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. (音位学) The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. (形态学) The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax(句法学) The study of meaning in language is called semantics. (语义学) The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. (语用学) 1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 (1)Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language

李观仪新编英语教程第六册翻译

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新编英语教程6 课文翻译 第1单元避免两词铭记两词 在生活中,没有什么比顿悟更令人激动和兴奋的,它可以改变一个人——不仅仅是改变,而且变得更好。当然,这种顿悟是很罕见的,但仍然可以发生在我们所有人身上。它有时来自一本书,一个说教或一行诗歌,有时也来自一个朋友。 在曼哈顿一个寒冷的冬天的下午,我坐在一个法国小餐馆,倍感失落和压抑。因为几次误算,在我生命中一个至关重要的项目就这样落空了。就因为这样,甚至连期望看到一个老朋友(我常常私下亲切的想到的一个老人)的情形都不像以前那样令我兴奋。我坐在桌边,皱起眉头看着色彩多样的桌布,清醒的嚼着苦涩的食物。 他穿过街道,裹着旧棉袄,一顶帽子从光头打下来,看上去不像是一个有名的精神病医生,倒像是一个精力充沛的侏儒。他的办公室在附近到处都有,我知道他刚刚离开他最后一个病人。他接近80岁,但仍然扛着一个装着满满文件的公文包,工作起来仍然像一个大公司的主管,无论何时有空,他都仍然爱去高尔夫球场。 当他走过来坐我旁边时,服务员早已把他总是要喝的啤酒端了过来,我已经几个月没有见他了,但他似乎还是老样子。没有任何寒暄,他就问我“怎么了,年轻人,” 我已经不再对他的样子感到奇怪,所以我详细地把烦恼告诉他。带着一丝忧伤的自豪。我尽量说出实情,除了我自己,我并没有因为失望而责备任何人。我分析了整件事情,但所有负面评价以及错误仍然继续。我讲了约有十五分钟,这期间老人只是默默的喝着啤酒。我讲完后,他取下眼镜说:“到我的办公室去。” “到你的办公室,你忘了带什么了吗,” 他和蔼的说“不是,我想看看你对某些事情的反应,仅此而已。”

外面开始下起小雨,但他的办公室很温暖,舒服,亲切:放满书的书架靠着墙壁,长皮沙发,弗洛伊德的亲笔签名照,还有墙边放着的录音笔。他的秘书回家了,只有我们在那里。老人从纸盒里拿出一盘磁带放进录音笔,然后说:“这里有到我这来求助的三个人的简单录音,当然,这没有说明具体是哪三个人。我想让你听听,看你是否能找出双字词的短语,这里是在三个案例中共有的。”他笑 道:“不要这么困扰,我有我的目的。” 对我来说,录音中三个主人共有的东西不是什么快乐的东西。首先讲话的是一个男人,他在生意中经历了一些损失或失败,他指责自己没有辛勤工作,也没有远见。接下来说话的是一个女人,她还没有结婚,因为对她寡妇母亲的强烈的责任意思,她伤心的回忆了所有擦肩而过的婚姻机遇。第三个说话的是一位母亲,她十多岁的儿子在警察局有麻烦,她总是不停地责备自己。 老人关掉收音机,侧身坐到椅子上:“在这些录音中,有一个短语像病毒一样的出现了六次。你注意到了吗,没有,噢,这可能是因为几分钟前你在餐馆说过了三次。”他拿起磁带盒扔给我。“正好在标签上有那两个伤心的词语。” 我向下一看,那里有两个清晰的红色的印字:如果。 “你受惊了吗,”老人说:“你能想象我坐在这把椅子上以这两个词开头的话有多少次了吗,他们总是对我说:如果换一种方法做——或根本不去做。(如果我没发脾气、没有做那虚伪的事、没有说那愚蠢的谎言。如果我聪明点,或更无私点,或更自控点。)直到我打断说话他们才会停止。有时我让他们听你刚说过的录音。我对他们说(如果你停止说如果,我们就已取得进展了。)” 老人伸出双脚,说:“问题是,‘如果’并没有改变任何东西。它使那人面对错误——后退而非前进,那样只是在浪费时间。最后,要是你让它成为一个习惯,它就会变成真的障碍,变成你不再去做尝试的借口了。”

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