The Economics of Discrimination Thirty Years Later Economists Enter the Courtroom
国际贸易法英文版双语教学课件Chapter 2
II. Major Principles of GATT 1994
C. National Treatment
1. tariffs were to be the only form of import protection permitted by GATT. Specifically, GATT prohibited the use of non-tariff barriers , such as quotas and quantitative restrictions to trade. As will be seen later , however , there are numerous exceptions to this policy.
III. The World Trade Organization
A. The WTO and the Economic Globalization
1. Economic globalization is a historical process ,the result of human innovation and technological progress .It refers to the increasing integration of economies around the world ，particularly through trade and financial flows .
agreement ,and addresses many of the latter's limitations .
International Trade Law
II. Major Principles of GATT 1994
经济学常用词汇英文
经济学常用英语词汇一、一般术语英文中文economist经济学家scarcity稀缺性opportunity cost机会成本marginal边际的utility效用efficiency效率equity公平trade-off权衡incentive激励externality外部性二、经济体系英文中文socialist economy社会主义经济capitalist economy资本主义经济collective economy集体经济planned economy计划经济market economy市场经济mixed economy混合经济liberal economy自由经济protectionism保护主义autarchy闭关自守globalization全球化三、经济学分支英文中文microeconomics微观经济学macroeconomics宏观经济学political economy政治经济学development economics发展经济学international economics国际经济学labor economics劳动经济学environmental economics环境经济学英文中文industrial economics工业经济学public economics公共经济学behavioral economics行为经济学四、市场结构英文中文perfect competition完全竞争monopoly垄断oligopoly寡头垄断monopolistic competition垄断竞争duopoly双寡头cartel卡特尔collusion勾结price discrimination价格歧视price leadership价格领导contestable market可竞争市场五、供求理论英文中文demand需求supply供给equilibrium均衡surplus过剩shortage不足elasticity弹性price elasticity of demand需求价格弹性income elasticity of demand需求收入弹性cross elasticity of demand需求交叉弹性price elasticity of supply供给价格弹性六、成本收益分析英文中文cost成本benefit收益total cost总成本fixed cost固定成本variable cost可变成本average cost平均成本marginal cost边际成本total revenue总收入average revenue平均收入marginal revenue边际收入七、国际贸易英文中文trade贸易export出口import进口tariff关税quota配额subsidy补贴exchange rate汇率balance of trade贸易差额balance of payments国际收支comparative advantage比较优势八、货币银行英文中文money货币currency货币bank银行deposit存款loan贷款interest利息interest rate利率inflation通货膨胀deflation通货紧缩monetary policy货币政策九、财政政策英文中文fiscal policy财政政策budget预算revenue收入expenditure支出tax税income tax所得税value added tax增值税sales tax销售税budget deficit预算赤字budget surplus预算盈余十、经济指标英文中文gross domestic product国内生产总值gross national product国民生产总值national income国民收入per capita income人均收入unemployment失业unemployment rate失业率economic growth经济增长economic development经济发展business cycle经济周期recession衰退。
11参考文献
主要参考文献迈克尔·波特（美）：《竞争战略》（Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy,1980.）陈小悦译，华夏出版社1997年版。
迈克尔·波特（美）：《竞争优势》（Michael E. Porter, Competitive Advantage,1985.）陈小悦译，华夏出版社1997年版。
迈克尔·波特（美）：《国家竞争优势》（Michael E. Porter, The Competitive Advantage of Nations,1990.）李明轩等译，华夏出版社2002年版。
戴维·贝赞可等(美)：《公司战略经济学》（David Besanko, David Dranove and Mark Shanley, The Economics of Strategy,1996.）武亚军等译，北京大学出版社1999年版。
尼尔·胡德和斯蒂芬·扬（英）：《跨国企业经济学》（Neil Hood and Stephen Young, The Economics of Multinational Enterprise,1979.）叶刚等译，经济科学出版社1994年版。
托马斯·加拉文、杰拉德·菲茨杰拉尔德、迈克·莫利[英]：《企业分析》(Thomas Gavavan, Gerar Fitzgerald, Mike Morley, Business Analysis, London, 1993.)马春光等译，生活·读书·新知三联书店1997年版。
伊莱扎·G·柯林斯等（美）《工商管理新论》（Eliza G. C. Collins, Mary Anne Devanna, The New Portable MBA,1994）,张宇宏等译，上海译文出版社1997年版。
syl_urbaneconomics
ECON/URBS 3334URBAN ECONOMICSFall 2003Dr. Richard V. Butler Office Hours: Office: CGC 421 MWF 8:30 - 9:20 Phone: 999-7256 Th 1:30 - 3:30E-mail: rbutler@ and most other hoursby appointmentTEXT: Arthur O'Sullivan, Urban Economics, 5th edition (McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2003). The text is intended to give you comprehensive coverage of the major concepts and issues, and to serve as a general reference. Additional readings will be assigned at appropriate points during the semester to provide alternative points of view or to introduce new issues (see attached list).COURSE OBJECTIVES: To give you an understanding of why cities exist, of what constitutes the economic base of an urban region, of the importance of location and space in economic analysis, of the policy issues which arise in the functioning of selected urban markets, of the challenges facing local governments, and -- to a limited extent -- of the cross-cultural context of urban economic issues. Also, to make you a fluent analyst of urban policy alternatives.COURSE REQUIREMENTS: The course will be taught with a significant emphasis on class participation. While there will indeed be more than a few formal lectures, students are expected to come to class well-prepared to engage in lively and meaningful discussion of the issues raised in the assigned readings. As Tom Lehrer once said of life, this course is like a sewer: you will get out of it what you put into it!The formal course requirements are these:∙Contribution to class discussions (10% of the course grade);∙Two mini-midterms, on September 25th and October 30th (20%)∙ A 5-page decision memorandum on an assigned policy issue, due on October 9th (20%);∙ A team project requiring the analysis of a real problem for a real policymaker, with presentation to your “client” the week of November 17th and a final written report due November 25th (25%);∙An unusual final exam, on Friday, December 12th at 6:30 p.m. (20%); and∙An evaluation of the course, due at your final examination (5%).NOTE: Assignments not turned in on time will be assessed a penalty.POLICIES:Makeups for either the midterm or the final will be given only under extreme circumstances, and only with written corroboration of the emergency from a doctor or other appropriate official. Makeups are likely to be a) oral and b) harder than the regularly scheduled written exam.The minimum penalty for cheating (including plagiarism) is a zero on the assignment in question; generally, a grade of F in the course will also be assigned. In addition, the incident will be reported as provided in the University's Policy on Academic Integrity.Attendance at class meetings is expected; given the course's emphasis on discussion, it could hardly be otherwise. Indeed, if you are absent more than four times without a really good excuse for repeated absence, points will be deducted from your semester grade. You would do well to note that 10% of your grade depends on the quantity and quality of your class participation, and that it is quite difficult to participate when you're not present.ECON/URBS 3334 Syllabus -2- Fall 2003COURSE OUTLINE AND READING ASSIGNMENTS: The following represents an approximation to our schedule: it shows the path we'll take through the principal topics of the course and the corresponding chapters in O'Sullivan. Note that there are additional reading assignments for most of the topics; see the pages following for details. Specific daily reading assignments will be distributed separately.Class Meetings Topic Corresponding Chapter(s)8/28, 9/2 Introduction to Urban Economics 1Why do cities exist? 2, 39/4 – 9/23 Location Theory and Regional 4, 5, 6Economics9/25 – 10/2 Land Use 7, 8, 9FIRST MINI-MIDTERM (9/25)10/7 – 10/14 Zoning and Land Use Controls 10POLICY MEMO DUE (10/9)10/16 - 10/28 Housing 17, 1810/30 – 11/11 TransportationSECOND MINI-MIDTERM (10/30) 11, 1211/13, 11/18 Poverty and Discrimination 13, 14PROJECT PRESENTATION (Week of 11/17)11/20, 11/25 Crime 16PROJECT REPORT DUE (11/25)12/2, 12/4 The Local Public Sector 19, 2012/9 Conclusion: The Future of Cities12/12 FINAL EXAM (6:30 p.m.)ADDITIONAL READINGS for each topic are listed below.1. Readings not marked with a * are required - you will be held responsible for their content. Thesereadings may be found in the class website on Blackboard.2. Those readings marked with a * are optional. They are listed solely as a convenience for those3. An excellent compendium of Urban Studies information resources has been compiled for yourfurther exploration by Michael Kaminski, liaison librarian for Urban Studies. You can find it at/mkaminsk/URBS_READroom/index.htmECON/URBS 3334 Syllabus -3- Fall 2003A. WHY CITIES?1. Robert Daseler, “What Makes a City Great?” (unpublished)*2. Edward L. Glaeser and Jesse M. Shapiro, “City Growth and the 2000 Census: Which Places Grew, and Why,” Brookings Institution Center on Urban & Metropolitan Policy Survey Series (May2001).B. LOCATION THEORY, REGIONAL ECONOMICS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTPOLICY1. Edwin S. Mills, "The Misuse of Regional Economic Models," Cato Journal (Spring/Summer 1993),29-392. Timothy J. Bartik, “Jobs, Productivity, and Local Economic Development: What Implications DoesEconomic Research Have for the Role of Government?” National Tax Journal (December 1994),847-862.3. Dennis Coates and Brad R. Humphreys, “The Stadium Gambit and Local Economic Development,”Regulation, Vol. 23, No. 2 (2000), 15-20.4. Ingrid Gould Ellen and Amy Ellen Schw artz, “No Easy Answers: Cautionary Notes for CompetitiveCities,” The Brookings Review (Summer 2000), 44-47.*5. John M. Quigley, “Urban Diversity and Economic Growth,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (Spring 1998), 127-138.*6. Edward L. Glaeser, “Are Cities Dying?” Journal of Economic Perspectives (Spring 1998), 139-160.*7. Andrew C. Krikelas, "Why Regions Grow: A Review of Research on the Economic Base Model,"Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review (July/August 1992), 16-29.1993), 29-39.*8. Michael E. Porter, “Clusters and the New Economic Competition,” Harvard Business Review (November/December 1998), 77-90.*9. David M. Gordon, "Class Struggle and the Stages of American Urban Development," pp. 55-82 in David C. Perry and Alfred J. Watkins, eds., The Rise of the Sunbelt Cities (Sage, 1977).*10. Richard Florida, “The Rise of the Creative Class,” The Washington Monthly (May 2002).C. LAND USE*1. Richard B. Peiser, "Density and Urban Sprawl," Land Economics (August 1989), 193-204.*2. N. Edward Coulson, "Really Useful Tests of the Monocentric Model," Land Economics (August 1991), 299-307.*3. Alan Berube and Benjamin Forman, “Living on the Edge: Decentralization Within Cities in the 1990s,” The Living Cities Census Series, The Brookings Institution (October 2002).*4. Alex Marshall, How Cities Work: Suburbs, Sprawl and the Roads Not Taken, University of Texas Press (2001).*5. Molly O‟Meara Sheehan, “What Will It Take To Halt Sprawl?” World Watch (January/February 2002), 12-23.*6. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream (North Point Press, 2000).ECON/URBS 3334 Syllabus -4- Fall 2003D. ZONING AND LAND USE CONTROLS1. George W. Liebmann, “Modernization of Zoning: A Means to Reform,” Regulation (1996, #2), 71-77.2. Anthony Downs, “How America‟s Cities are Growing: The Big Picture,” The Brookings Review(Fall 1998), 8-11.3.Peter Gordon and Harry W. Richardson, “Prove It: The Costs and Benefits of Sprawl,” TheBrookings Review (Fall 1998), 23-25.4.William A. Fischel, “Comment on Carl Abbott‟s …The Portland Region: Where Cities and SuburbsTalk to Each Other –and Often Agree,‟” Housing Policy Debate, Vol. 8, Issue 1 (1998), 65-73.5.Randal O‟Toole, “Dense Thinkers,” Reason (January 1999), 44-52; Comments from readers andresponse by O‟Toole, Reason (April 1999), 48-51.6.Pietro S. Nivola, “Are Europe‟s Cities Better?” The Public Interest (Fall 1999), 73-84.*7. Edwin S. Mills, "Economic Analysis of Urban Land-Use Controls," pp. 511-541 in Peter Mieszkowski and Mahlon Straszheim, eds., Current Issues in Urban Economics (Johns Hopkins,1979).*8. Bernard Siegan, "Non-Zoning in Houston," Journal of Law and Economics (April 1970), 71-147.*9. William A. Fischel, The Economics of Zoning Laws (Johns Hopkins, 1985), especially Ch. 12.*10. Edward Glaeser and Joseph Gyourko, “Zoning‟s Steep Price,” Regulation (Fall 2002), 24-30.*11. Randal O‟Toole, “The Folly of …Smart Growth,‟” Regulation (Fall 2001), 20-25.E. HOUSING1. Thomas Hazlett, "Rent Controls and the Housing Crisis," pp. 277-300 in Johnson, Resolving theHousing Crisis. (1982)2. John Atlas and Peter Dreier, "The Phony Case Against Rent Control," The Progressive (April 1989),26-30.3. Scott Shuger, "Who are the Homeless?" The Washington Monthly (March 1990), 38-49.4. Bruce Katz, “Housing Vouchers: Performance and Potential,” Testimony to the Subcommittee onHousing and Community Opportunity of the Committee on Financial Services, U. S. House ofRepresentatives (June 17, 2003).* 5. John Tierney, “At the Intersection of Supply and Demand,” New York Times Magazine (May 4, 1997), 38ff.*6. Raymond J. Struyk, "The Distribution of Tenant Benefits from Rent Control in Urban Jordan," Land Economics (May 1988), 125-134.*7. Stuart A. Gabriel, “Urban Housing Policy in the 1990‟s,” Housing Policy Debate, Vol. 7, Issue 4 (1996), 673-693.*8. U.S. Department of HUD, Report to Congress on Rent Control (September 1991).*9. Martin Ravallion, "The Welfare Cost of Housing Standards: Theory with Application to Jakarta,"Journal of Urban Economics (1989), 197-211.*10. Walter Block and Edgar Olsen, Rent Control, Myths and Realities: International Evidence of the Effects of Rent Control in Six Countries (Enslow, 1981).*11. Jerome Rothenberg, George C. Galster, Richard V. Butler and John R. Pitkin, The Maze of Urban Housing Markets: Theory, Evidence and Policy (University of Chicago Press, 1991).*12. Gordon Berlin and William McAllister, “Homelessness: Why N othing Has Worked – And What Will,” Brookings Review (Fall 1992), 12-17.*13. William Tucker, "How Housing Regulations Cause Homelessness," The Public Interest (Winter 1992), 78-88.*14. James R. Barth and Robert E. Litan, “Uncle Sam in the Housing Marke t: the Section 8 Rental Subsidy Disaster,” The Brookings Review (Fall 1996), 22-25.1. Kenneth A. Small, “Urban Traffic Congestion: A New Approach to the Gordian Knot,” TheBrookings Review (Spring 1993), 6-11.2. Peter Gordon and Harry Richardson, "Notes from the Underground: the Failure of Urban MassTransit," The Public Interest (Winter 1989), 77-86.3.John F. Kain, "The Use of Straw Men in the Economic Evaluation of Rail Transport Projects,"American Economic Review (May 1992), 487-493.4.Anthony Downs, “The Future of U. S. Ground Transportation from 2000 to 2020,” Testimony to theSubcommittee on Highways and Transit of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure,U. S. House of Representatives (March 21, 2001).*5. Don H. Pickrell, "A Desire Named Streetcar: Fantasy and Fact in Rail Transit Planning," APA Journal (Spring 1992), 158-176.*6. Robert W. Poole, Jr. and C. Kenneth Orski, “HOT Lanes: A Better Way to Attack Urban Highway Congestion,” Regulation, Vol. 23, No. 1 (2000), 15-20.*7. Melvin M. Webber, "The BART Experience: What Have We Learned?" The Public Interest (Fall 1976), pp. 79-108.*8. Anthony Downs, Stuck in Traffic: Coping with Peak-Hour Traffic Congestion (Brookings, 1992).*9. Marcia D. Lowe, "Alternatives for the Automobile: Transport for Livable Cities," Worldwatch Paper #98 (The Worldwatch Institute, 1990).*10. John F. Kain, "Deception in Dallas: Strategic Misrepresentation in Rail Transit Promotion and Evaluation," APA Journal (Spring 1990), 184-195.*11. Eduardo Engel, Ronald Fischer and Alexander Galetovic, “A New Approach to Private Roads,”Regulation (Fall 2002), 18-22.*12. Janet Rothenburg Pack, “I‟ll Ride, You Pay: Social Benefits and Transit Subsidies,” The Brookings Review (Summer 1992), 48-51.G. POVERTY AND DISCRIMINATION1. Howard M. Wachtel, "Looking at Poverty from a Radical Perspective," pp. 307-312 in David M.Gordon, ed., Problems in Political Economy: An Urban Perspective, 2nd edition (D.C. Heath,1977).2.Martin Feldstei n, “Reducing Poverty, not Inequality,” The Public Interest (Fall 1999), 33-41.3.Jason DeParle, “Why We Needed Welfare Reform”, The Washington Monthly (July/August 1997),pp. 42-45.4.Kenneth J.Arrow, “What Has Economics to Say About Racial Discrimination?” Journal ofEconomic Perspectives (Spring 1998), 91-100.5.Margy Waller, “Remarks to the American Public Human Services Association Summer Meeting”(July 21, 2003).*6. Ingrid Gould Ellen, “Welcome Neighbors? New Evidence on the Possibility of Stable Racial Integration,” The Brookings Review (Winter 1997), pp. 18-21.*7. Bruce Katz and Katherine Allen, “Help Wanted: Connecting Inner-City Job Seekers with Suburban Jobs,” The Brookings Review (Fall 1999), 31-35.*8. Thomas Schelling, "The Ecology of Micromotives," The Public Interest (Fall 1971).*9. Gary Becker, The Economics of Discrimination.*10. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (1996).*11. William Breit and John B. Horowitz, “Discrimination and D iversity: Market and Non-market Settings,” Public Choice (1995), 63-75.*12. Rebecca M. Blank, “Policy Watch: The 1996 Welfare Reform,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (Winter 1997), 169-177.*13. Edwin S. Mills and Luan‟ Sende Lubuele, “Inner Cities,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (June 1997), 727-756.1. Anonymous, “Crime and Punishment,” Economic Issues (November 1996), 1ff.2. Ann Dryden Witte, “Urban Crime: Issues and Policies,” Housing Policy Debate, Vol. 7, Issue 4(1996), 673-693.*3. David R. Henderson, "A Humane Economist's Case for Drug Legalization,” U. C. Davis Law Review (1991), 655-676.*4. Ann Morrison Piehl and John J. DiIulio, Jr., "'Does Prison Pay?' Revisited: Returning to the Crime Scene," The Brookings Review (Winter 1995), 21-25.*5. Anonymous, "Let the Punishment Fit the Crime," Regulation (1988, Number 3), 5-8.*6. John R. Lott, Jr., More Guns, Less Crime (1990).*7. Isaac Ehrlich, “Crime, Punishment and the Market for Offenses,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (Winter 1996), pp. 43-67.*8. John J. DiIulio, Jr., “Help Wanted: Economists, Crime and Public Policy,” Journal of Economic Perspectives (Winter 1996), pp. 3-24.I. THE LOCAL PUBLIC SECTOR1.Geoffrey E. Segal and Samuel R. Staley, “City of Angels, Valley of Rebels,” Cato Policy Report(September/October 2002), 1ff.*2. Edward W. Hill and Jeremy Nowack, “Nothing Left to Lose: Only Radical Strategies Can Help America‟s Most Distressed Cities,” The Brookings Review (Summer 2000), 25-28.*3. Fred Siegel, “Is Regional Government the Answer?” The Public Interest (Fall 1999), 85-98.*4. Charles T. Clotfelter, "The Private Life of Public Economics," Southern Economic Journal (April 1993), 579-596.*5. Werner W. Pommerehne and Susanne Krebs, "Fiscal Interactions of Central City and Suburbs: The Case of Zurich," Urban Studies (1991), 783-801.*6. Steven Ginsberg, “Two Cheers for the Property Tax,” The Washington Monthly (October 1997), pp.33-35.*7. Heywood T. Sanders, "What Infrastructure Crisis?" The Public Interest (Winter 1993), 3-18*8. Bruce Katz, “Enough of the Small Stuff! Toward a New Urban Agenda,” The Brookings Review (Summer 2000), 7-11.J. CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE OF CITIES*1. Edwin S. Mills and Bruce W. Hamilton, "Urbanization in Developing Countries," Ch. 17 in their Urban Economics, 5th ed. (HarperCollins, 1994), 433-458.*2. Lester R. Brown and Jodi L. Jacobson, "The Future of Urbanization: Facing the Ecological and Economic Constraints," Worldwatch Paper #77 (The Worldwatch Institute, 1987).*3. Katherine L. Bradbury, Anthony Downs and Kenneth A. Small, "Forces Affecting the Future of Cities" and "General Conclusions about the Future of Cities," chs. 8 and 9 in their Urban Declineand the Future of American Cities (Brookings, 1982).*4. Exequiel Eziurra and Marisa Mazari-Hiriart, “Are Mega Cities Viable?” Environment(January/February 1996), 6ff.*5. “Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World,” World Bank Webcast, at /wbi/B-SPAN/sub_cities_transformed.htm。
《就业歧视问题研究国内外文献综述3200字》
就业歧视问题研究国内外文献综述①国外研究综述就业歧视包括经济、文化、政治等方面。
美国经济学家Gary S. Becker根据1957年的一篇论文发表了《歧视经济学》，提出了歧视的偏好模型，他的歧视理论，是基于“身体和精神上的不适”，这表明有些人可能会支付高昂的费用独自一人享受，也不愿与特定群体的成员约会。
个人偏好歧视理论是贝克尔歧视理论的发展。
该理论将歧视视为歧视者的偏好。
这是指与不同种族或性别的成员相关的个人偏好。
她认为歧视来自个人。
用贝克尔的话来说，包括雇主、雇员和客户，不来自个人品味。
“如果一个人有歧视性的偏好，”他愿意用另一组代替一组，并为此付出一些代价。
这些成本可以是直接的或间接的，例如放弃部分收入。
贝克尔进一步指出：“当歧视行为发生时，该人要么直接支付特权，要么放弃部分收入行使特权。
这样看来，他只是触及了偏见和歧视的本质。
Riskin提出的“就业分离理论”而Ruth则基于简单的供求概念，具有有限的歧视范围，假设部分雇主有限制就业的理论。
人们对不同的人群有主观的好恶，无论他们的能力如何。
阿尔斯特皇家警察局局长Shaman表示，英国是一个古老的资本主义工业化国家，传统观念是雇主可以以任何理由拒绝求职者，普通法中不存在就业歧视。
直到1970 年代，英国才开始关注劳动力市场的歧视问题。
这主要有两个原因：人生来权利平等观念深入人心，相关的维护运动也越来越多。
支持社会组织的平等权利，英国政府一直承受着通过立法来规范雇主观念的压力，英国是国际条约的签署国和欧盟的成员，即法律必须按照相关规定执行。
联合国、国际劳工组织和欧盟的法规，必须履行其采纳相关法规的义务。
简而言之，成员国有义务反对工作场所的歧视。
英国政府的社会排斥部门表示：“社会排斥是一个简洁的术语，指的是特定个人或地区遭受失业、缺乏技能、低收入、住房问题、犯罪环境高、健康和家庭损失等情况，它是一个综合问题”（Social Exclusion Unit,2019)。
社会工作专业英语讲义
社会⼯作专业英语讲义Introduction to social work and social welfareChapter2Social work values and ethicsChapter3Empowerment and human diversityChapter4The process of generalist practiceChapter5Practice settingsChapter6An overview of social welfare and social work history Chapter7Policy and policy advocacyChapter8Poverty problemsChapter9Social work and social services for children and families Chapter10Social work and social services for older adultsChapter11Social work and social services for people with disabilities Chapter12Social work and social services in health careChapter13Social work and social services in mental healthChapter14Social work and substance use, abuse, and dependence Chapter15Social work and social services for youth and in the schools Chapter16Social work and social services in the criminal justice systemIntroduction to social work and social welfareCase AKeywords: adopt, family service, paperwork, family life planningCase B:Keywords: group session and group work; mental health; self-help group; mutual-help group Case C:Keywords: Sexual Assault, match, funding-raisingWhat is Social work?Social work is the professional activity of help individuals, groups, or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal. Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends:Helping people obtain tangible servicesProviding counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families and groups. Helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services Participating in relevant legislative processesFive themes:Social work concerns helping individuals, groups, or communities.Social work entails a solid foundation of values and principles.A firm basis of techniques and skills provides directions.Social works need to link people to recourses or advocate for service development for clients.Social workers participate legislative process to promote positive social changes.What is social welfare?Social welfare is a nation's system of programs, benefits, and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational, and health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society.Two Dimensions:What people get from society (programs, benefits and services?)How well their needs (social, economic, educational, and health) are being met How are social welfare and social work related?Debates on social welfare:Individual responsibility: you get you deserveSociety responsibilityWho should assume responsibility for people's social welfare?Residual, institutional, and developmental perspectives on social welfare.1. Residual ModelSocial welfare benefit and service should be supplied only when people fail to provide adequately for themselves.Blame the victim (fault and failure)For instance: social assistanceFamilies in need receive limited and temporary financial assistance until they can get back on their feet.2. Institutional modelPeople have a right to get benefit and service.For instance: public education, fire and police protectionEvery one can get these services.3. Developmental modelThis approach seeks to identify social interventions that have a positive impact on economic development.(1) Invest in education, nutrition and health care(2) In vest in physical facilities(3) help people in need engage in productive employment and self-employment.Political ideology: conservatives, liberalism and radicalismConservatism is the philosophy that individuals are responsible for themselves, government should provide minimal interference in people's lives, and change is generally unnecessary.Liberalism is the philosophy that government should be involved in the social, political and economic structure so that all people's rights and privileges are protected in the name of social justice.Radicalism is the philosophy that the social and political system as it stands is not structurally capable of truly providing social justice. The fundamental changes are necessary in the basic social and political structure to achieve truly fair and equal treatment.Fields of practice in social workWork with people in needs (children, youth, old people, the disable etc.)Work with some occupationThe continuum of social work careersDegree in social workBSW: prepare for the entry-level social workMSW: receive more specialized trainingDSW: teach at the college level or conduct researchSocial work builds on many disciplinespsychologysociologypolitical scienceeconomicsbiologypsychiatrycouncilcultural anthropologysocial workSocial workers demonstrate competenciesCompetencies are measurable practice behaviors that are comprised ofsufficient knowledge, skills, and values" and have the goal of practicing effective social work.Competency 1: identification as a professional social workerCompetency 2: the application of social work ethical principles to guide practice Competency 3: the application of critical thinking to inform professional judgmentsCompetency 4: engagement of diversity in practiceCompetency 5: the advancement of human rights and social economic justice. Competency 6: engagement in research-informed practiceEvidence-based practiceCompetency 7: application of knowledge of human behavior and the social environmentCompetency 8: engagement in policy proactive to advance social and economic well-beingCompetency 9: responsiveness to contexts that shape practiceCompetency 10: engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.Chapter 2 social work values and ethics1. Value and ethicsSocial worker is value-based profession.What is value?Value involves what you do and do not consider important and worthwhile, and also involve judgments and decisions about relative worth.What is Ethics?Ethics involve principles that specify what is good and what is bad. They clarify what should and should not be done Difference between value and ethics:Value determine what beliefs are appropriate. Ethics address what to do with or how to apply those beliefs to do the right thing.The importance of ethics2. Value and ethics for social workersSix core values for social workers:(1) Service(2) Social justice(3) Dignity and worth of the person(4) Importance of human relationships(5) Integrity(6) CompetenceSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to clients:(1) Self-determinationPractitioners should nurture and support client self-extermination ：each individual's right to make his or her own decisions.(2)Privacy and confidentiality(3) Conflict of interest and Dual relationshipsThe clients' best interests must be protected to the maximum extent possible.(4) Sexual relationshipSocial workers’ Ethical responsibilities to colleagues(1) Respect(2) Referral for servicesSocial Workers’ Ethical responsibilities in Practice settingsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities as professionalscompetenceagainst discriminationhonestnot solicit clients for the purpose of personal gainsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the social work profession.IntegrityResearchEvaluationSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the broader society(1) Advocate for people's welfare(2) Ensure fair and equal access to resources and opportunities.(3) Respect cultural diversity.(4) Prevent discrimination against or exploiting peopleTranslation exercisesSocial workers must uphold client privacy and confidentiality. Privacy is the condition of being free from unauthorized observation or intrusion.We have established that confidentiality is the ethical principle that workers should not share information provided by a client or about a client unless they have the client's explicit permission to do so. There is more to confidentiality than may be immediately apparent.Confidentiality means more that not revealing information about clients to others. It also involves not asking for more information than is necessary, as well as informing clients about the limitations of confidentiality within the agency setting. Chapter 3 Empowerment and Human DiversityStereotype!Women are too emotional to make good supervisorsElderly people can't think well.Gay and lesbian people really want to be opposite gender.People with physical disabilities are unemployable.Discrimination, oppression, marginalization, alienation, stereotypes, and prejudiceDiscrimination is the act of treating people differently based on the fact that they belong to some group rather than on merit. Oppression involves putting extreme limitations and constraints on some person, group, or larger system. Marginalization is the condition of having less power and being viewed as less important than others in the society because of belonging to some group or having some characteristic.Alienation, related to marginalization, is the feeling that you don't fit in or aren't treated as well as others in the mainstream of society.A stereotype is a fixed mental picture of member of some specified group based on some attribute or attributes that reflect an overly simplified view of that group, without consideration or appreciation of individual differences.Prejudice is an opinion or prejudgment about an individual, group, or issue that is not based on fact.A major social work value involves the importance of people being treated fairly and equally.Populations-at-risk and social economic justiceDiversity emphasizes the similarity and dissimilarity between numerousgroups in society that have distinguishing characteristics.Populations-at-risk are people at greater risk of deprivation and unfair treatment because they share some identifiable characteristic that places them in diverse group.Factors: gender, age, religion, culture, disability, class, immigration statusSocial and economic justiceEmpowerment and a Strengths perspectiveEmpowerment is the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations.A strengths perspective:1. Every individual, group, family and community has strengths.2. Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be injurious but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity.3. Social workers should assume that they do not know the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change and take individual, group, and community aspirations seriously.4. Social workers best serve clients by collaborating with when.5. Every environment is full of resources.Resiliency: seeking strength amid adversityThe ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk factors and protective factors.Risk factors involve stressful life events or adverse environmental conditions that increase the vulnerability of individuals or other systems.Protective factors involve buffer, moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities.Human DiversityRace and EthnicityRace implies a greater genetic determinant, whereas ethnicity often relates to cultural or national heritage.Culture and cultural competenceCulture is the sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to generation within a group of people and includes institutions, language, religious ideals, habits of thinking, and patterns of social and interpersonal relationships. Social workers need to have cultural competence to address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities.叮叮⼩⽂库National Origin and immigration statusFour experiences which newcomer faced:Social isolationCultural shockCultural changeGoal-strivingclass or social classpolitical ideologygender, gender identity, and gender expressionSexual orientationHomosexual or heterosexual (bisexual)AgeDisabilityReligion and spiritualityChapter 4: Generalist practiceConcepts in the definition of generalist practice1. Acquiring an eclectic knowledge baseA. systems theoryB. ecological perspectiveC. Curriculum content areas1) Values and ethics2) Diversity3) populations-at-risk and social and economic justice4) Human behavior and the social environment5) Social welfare policy and services6) Social work practice7) Research8) Field educationD. Fields of practice2. Emphasizing client empowerment3. Using professional valuesA. social works code of ethicsB. application of professional values to solve ethical dilemma4. Applying a wide range of skillsA. microB. mezzoC. macro5. T argeting any size systemA. microB. mezzoC. Marco6. Working in an organizational structure7. Using supervision appropriately8. Assuming a wide range of professional roles9. Following the principles of evidence-based practice10. Employing critical thinking skills11. Using a planned-change processA. engagementB. assessmentC. planningD. implementationE. evaluationF. terminationG. follow-upWorking in an organizational structure under supervisionWhat is organizational structureOrganizational structure is the formal or informal manner in which tasks and responsibilities, lines of authority, channels of communication, and dimensions of power are established and coordinated within an organization.What is supervisionSupervision is the process by which a designated supervisor watches over a workers’ performance.A wide range of rolescounseloreducatorbrokercase managermobilizermediatorfacilitatoradvocatesupervisorsmanagers3 skills (technical, people and conceptual)Evidence-based practiceEvidence-based practice is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available.Tools, models, methods and policies must be validated by research and consequence evaluation also should use scientific research methodsCritical thinking skillsAvoiding the fallacy trap1. Relying on case examples2. being vague3. Being biased or not objective4. Believing that if it’s writ ten down it must be rightasking questionsassessing factasserting a conclusionPlanned-change processPlanned change and problem-solvingStep1 engagementStep2 assessmentStep3 planningStep4 implementationStep5 evaluationStep6 terminationEngagement: social workers begin to establish communication and a relationship with others and orient themselves to the problems.skillsVerbal communication and nonverbal communication (cultural variations) Conveying warmth, empathy, and genuineness Alleviating initial client anxiety and introducing the worker's purpose and roleAssessment: gather and analyze information to provide a concise picture of the client and his or her needs and strengths. skillsLooking beyond individual and examine other factors in their environment Finding strengthsPaying attention human diversityPlanning: what should be doneAlternatives and consequencesimplementation: following the plans to achieve the goalsEvaluation: determine whether a given change effort was worthwhile.termination: the end of the professional social work-client relationship types:Natural, forced, and unplannedskillsAppropriate timingChapter 5: Practice SettingSetting in Social Work Practice: Organizations and Communities ?Organizations are entities made up of people that have rules and structure to achieve specified goals.Social services in the context of social agencies.Social services include the wide range of activities that social workers perform to help people solve problems and improve their personal well-being.A social agency is an organization providing social services that typically employs social workers in addition to office staff, and sometimes volunteers. Forms:Public or private;Nonprofit or proprietary (for profit)Social work practice in the context of communitiesA community is “a number of people who have something in summon with one another that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others.Some mutual characteristic, such as "location, interest, identification, culture, and activities"Types:Locality-based community;Non geographic communityThe special circumstances of social work practice in rural communities.Low population densitySocial problems faced by rural residents:poverty, lack of transportation, inadequate child care, unemployment, substandard housing, and insufficient health care and so on.Four special issues for rural social workers:(1)true gene lists(work with different level case systems and use a wide of skills)(2) Interagency cooperation.(3) The importance of understanding the community, knowing its values and developing relationships with rural residents (informal relationship)(4) Emphasizing strengths inherent in rural communities. (Informal supporting system)Urban social workUrban social work is practice within the context of large cities, with their vast array of social problems, exceptional diversity, and potential range of resources. Five problems in urban areas:(1)Social problems occur with greater frequency and therefore are more visible(2) Widespread occurrence of discriminatory behavior.(3) Migration problems.(4) Financial shortfalls or unavailability of resources.(5)Greater amount of psychological stressSkills necessary for urban social work(1) Paying attention to human diversity(2) Understanding their agency environment(3) Seeking resources in the external urban environment(4) Using advocacyMicro practice: social work with individualscounseloreducatorbrokerfacilitatoradvocateMicro/mezzo practice: social work with familiesThe primary purpose of family social work is to help families learn to function more competently while meeting the development and emotional needs of all members.The task of family social workers(1) Be responsive to the styles and values of families from other special populations.(2) Break complex tasks into smaller specific steps.(3) Assess the key skills needed for less stressful family interaction.(4) Explain and model appropriate skills.(5) Assess individual learning styles and ways to teach adults and children(6) Establish homework and other means of ensuring generalization of skills from one setting to another.(7) Promote and reward skill acquisition.(8) Emphasize strategies that help develop the strengths of family members(9) Motivate the family to stay involved even when faced with challenges and setback.The importance of social networks for families.Social network: the structure and number of people and groups with whom you have contact or consider yourself to be in contact.Emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal supportMezzo practice: social work with groupTreatment groupMacro practice: social work with organizations and communities ?social actionsocial planninglocality developmentMacro skills(1) Agency or public social policies may require change.(2) Entail initiating and conducting projects within agency or community contexts(3) Planning and implementing new social service programs within an agency or community.Chapter 6: An overview of social welfare and social work historyEarly European Approaches to Social WelfareFeudalismLands owner vs. landless serfMedieval hospitalChurchPeople have little mobility, free choice, potential for change.Judeo-Christian thought: "Good deeds, love of one's enemies, and entry into heaven through mercy and charity". England after feudalism's demisePeople gained mobility and independence but lost much of the safety and security the old feudal system had provided. Government regains social control by passing some statute, such as: Keeping people from moving;Forbidding able-bodied people from begging.The English Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601Recipients are categorized into:1. Dependent children2. Impotent poor3. The able-bodied poor1662 Law of settlement established a new principle of social welfare provision: residency requirement.The Speenhamland SystemThe first Minimum income maintenance systemThe English Poor Law reforms of 1834Government would not provide outdoor relief for able-bodied people.Blame the victimU. S. Social welfare History: Early Colonization to the mid-1800s ?Services reflected a mix of public and private collaboration.Government assumed responsibility of administration aid but often called upon local churches for help.Residency requirement was established.Focus on Mental Health and Mental illnessMoral treatment: humane treatment in structured institutional settingsThe Civil War EraFreeman Bureau: the first federal welfare agency1870-1900Two trends:Industrialization;UrbanizationFocus on children: early policiesInstitutional care: almshouse and orphanageFoster careSettlement House, Charity Organization Societies, and Generalist social workSettlement House were places where ministers, students, or humanitarians 'settle' to interact with poor slum dwellers with the purpose of alleviating the condition of capitalism.Characters1. Settle house approach address the problems in the context of environment.2. Emphasize on advocacy3. Emphasize on empowerment of peopleCharity Organization SocietiesFriendly visitorEstablish a base of scientific knowledge and apply it to the helping process Focus on curing individualThe Progressive period: 1900 to 1930The Great Depression and the 1930sThe Great Depression and New DealCash reliefShort-term work relief,Expansion of employmentThe Social Security Act of 1935Social insurance (for old age, disability, death of a breadwinner, unemployment, and work-related injury and sickness) Public Assistance (old people, children and blind people)The 1960s and the War on PovertyMore people of color are in poverty than white people.Public assistance roll were escalating even unemployment decreased.the public welfare amendments of 1962Supportive social service to help welfare recipients to self-supporting.War on povertyHead Start; Volunteers in Service to AmericaA Return to Conservatism in the 1970sConservative extremes in the 1980s and early 1990s.TranslationSocial Workers have difficulties with empowerment strategies because their agencies are part of a social system which routinely devalues certain minority groups. Making equal responses to all people who come to an agency may reduce discrimination. Since negative valuations are so widespread, agencies may unthinkingly implement them. Consequently, we discourage potential clients from using the agency and they do not receive the equal treatment available.Chapter 7: Policy, Policy Analysis, Policy Practice, and Policy Advocacy Social welfare policyPolicy: rules that govern people's lives and dictate expectations for behavior.Social Welfare Policy: Laws and regulations that govern which social welfare programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a given program.Agency Policy: standards adopted by organizations and programs that provide services.Social Welfare Policy Developmentphase 1Recognizing society's values about what is considered important or worthwhile.Phase 2Identifying problems and needs that require attention.Phase 3Identification of public opinion about an identified problem and people's related needs.Normative orientationphase 4Legislators confronted with a problem or need and swamped with public opinion undertake the complicated formulation of social welfare policy to address the issues.Phase 5Implementation through a social welfare program.Phase 6Social services are delivered by social workers and other staff in the context of social services agencies.Structural components of social welfare programs1. What are people's needs and program goals?I.e. the food stamp program2. What kinds of benefits are provided?Cash and in-kind3. What are the eligibility criteria for the program?Means test4. Who pays for the programs?General tax, state lottery, social security tax; private agency; client5. How is the program administered and run?National, state, or local?Value perspectives and political ideology: effects on social responsibility and social welfare program developmentThe conservative-liberal continuumradicalismresidual and institutional perspectives on social welfare policy and program developmentuniversal versus selective service provisionFive-E ApproachHow effective is the policyHow efficient is the policyIs the policy ethically soundWhat does evaluation of potential alternative policies revealWhat recommendations can be established for positive changes Policy Practice and Policy AdvocacyChapter 8: Social work and services in health careHealth problemsFactors causing health problems:1. Unhealthful lifestyles2. Physical injured3. Enviromental factors4. Poverty5. ContagiousSocial Work Roles in Health Care：medical social workerSocial work roles in direct health care practice1. Hospital, medical clinics and so on(1) Help patients understand and interpret technical medical jargon(2) Offer emotional support(3) Help terminally ill people deal with their feelings and make end-of-life plans.(4) Help patient’s adjust their lives and lifestyles to accommodate to new conditions when they return home after medical treatment(5) Help parents of children who have serious illnesses or disabilities cope with these conditions and respond to children's needs.(6) Serve as brokers who link patients with necessary supportive resources andservices after leaving the medical facility.(7) Help patients make financial arrangements to pay hospital and other medical bills.(8) Provide health education aimed at establishing a healthful lifestyle and preventing illness.2. Public Health Departments and other health care contexts(1) Preventing diseases(2) Prolonging life(3) Promoting health and efficiency through organized community effort3. Managed care settingsTraditional healthy insurance (fee-for-service basis)Assessment to determine whether patients are eligible for benefits and which are most appropriate.Macro Practice in Health care: seeking empowermentAdvocating for health coverage and health care legislation, policies and resourcesHealth Care policy and problems in the macro environmentThe escalating cost of health care1. The rapid acceleration of technological advances has increased the types of services, drugs, and testing available.2. The population is aging.Unequal access to health careNational health insurance vs. contribution-based health insuranceProblems in managed careCapitationCost and health-care outcomeCultural competenceAPI cultural:Filial pietyCollective versus individual decision makingEmphasis on Harmony versus conflictNonverbal communicationsFatalismShame at asking for helpInternational perspectives: AIDS-A Global CrisisAIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeHIV: human immunodeficiency virusEmpowerment for people living with AIDS victims vs. People living with AIDS Social work roles and empowerment for people living with AIDS Counseling;Educator;Crisis intervention;Empowerment and reconnection (support system);Family counseling;。
英国法及美国法文献
美国法文献
由于美国有较为完善的引证统计机制，所以判断学术著作之影响力的渠道较为公开和透明。现转引 Fred R. Shapiro在芝加哥大学的Journal of Legal Studies（法学研究杂志）上发表的“1978年以 来引用率最高的法学著作”（“THE MOST-CITED LEGAL BOOKS PUBLISHED SINCE 1978”）一文中所列出 的1978年之后出版的50部影响巨大的法学专著（不包括1978年之前出版的，也不包括教材）。我们 可以看到，其中大多数都是宪法学著作。
4 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life 726 and Law (1987) 5 Richard A. Posner, The Economics of Justice (1981) (1983) 542 6 Richard A. Epstein, Takings: Private Property and the Power of 515 Eminent Domain (1985) 7 Bruce A. Ackerman, Social Justice in the Liberal State (1980) 509 8 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Sexual Harassment of Working Women: A Case 504 of Sex Discrimination (1979) 9 Ronald M. Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (1978) 489 10 Jesse H. Choper, Judicial Review and the National Political 466 Process: A Functional Reconsideration of the Role of the Supreme Court (1980) 11 Ronald M. Dworkin, A Matter of Principle (1985) 462 12 Robert H. Bork, The Tempting of America: The Political Seduction 444 of the Law (1990) 13 Joseph Goldstein, Anna Freud, & Albert J. Solnit, Before the Best 442 Interests of the Child (1979), Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1979), In the Best Interests of the Child: Professional Boundaries (1986), The Best Interest of the Child: The Least Detrimental Alternative (1996) Richard A. Posner, The Federal Courts: Crisis and Reform (1985), 442 The Federal Courts: Challenge and Reform (1996) 15 Guido Calabresi, A Common Law for the Age of Statutes (1982) 438 16 Guido Calabresi & Philip Bobbit, Tragic Choices (1978) 381 17 Stephen G. Breyer, Regulation and Its Reform (1982) 367 18 Michael J. Perry, The Constitution, the Courts, and Human Rights: 354 An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Constitutional Policymaking by the Judiciary (1982) 19 Derrick A. Bell, Jr., And We Are Not Saved: The Elusive Quest for 345 Racial Justice (1987) (1989) 20 Catharine A. MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State 340 (1989) 21 William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, The Economic Structure of 334 Tort Law (1987) 22 George P. Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (1978) 332 23 Mark G. Kelman, A Guide to Critical Legal Studies (1987) 312 24 Richard A. Posner, The Problems of Jurisprudence (1990) 297 25 Martha L. Minow, Making All the Difference: Inclusion, Exclusion, 290 and American Law (1990) 26 Bruce A. Ackerman, We the People (1991, 1998) 282 27 Bruce A. Ackerman & William T. Hassler, Clean Coal/Dirty Air: Or 277 How the Clean Air Act Became a Multibillion-Dollar Bail-Out for High-Sulfur Coal Producers and What Should Be Done about It (1981) 28 Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law (1985) 269 Steven Shavell, Economic Analysis of Accident Law (1987) 269 30 Reid Hastie, Steven D. Penrod, & Nancy Pennington, Inside the Jury 264 (1983) Ian R. Macneil, The New Social Contract: An Inquiry into Modern 264
曼昆经济学原理英文书
曼昆经济学原理英文书The Economics Principles by MankiwChapter 1: Ten Principles of EconomicsChapter 2: Thinking Like an EconomistChapter 3: Interdependence and the Gains from Trade Chapter 4: The Market Forces of Supply and Demand Chapter 5: Elasticity and Its ApplicationChapter 6: Supply, Demand, and Government Policies Chapter 7: Consumers, Producers, and Efficiency of Markets Chapter 8: Application: The Costs of TaxationChapter 9: Application: International TradeChapter 10: ExternalitiesChapter 11: Public Goods and Common Resources Chapter 12: The Design of the Tax SystemChapter 13: The Costs of ProductionChapter 14: Firms in Competitive MarketsChapter 15: MonopolyChapter 16: Monopolistic CompetitionChapter 17: OligopolyChapter 18: The Markets for Factors of Production Chapter 19: Earnings and DiscriminationChapter 20: Income Inequality and PovertyChapter 21: Introduction to MacroeconomicsChapter 22: Measuring a Nation's IncomeChapter 23: Measuring the Cost of LivingChapter 24: Production and GrowthChapter 25: Saving, Investment, and the Financial System Chapter 26: The Basic Tools of FinanceChapter 27: UnemploymentChapter 28: The Monetary SystemChapter 29: Money Growth and InflationChapter 30: Open-Economy Macroeconomics: Basic Concepts Chapter 31: A Macroeconomic Theory of the Open Economy Chapter 32: Aggregate Demand and Aggregate SupplyChapter 33: The Influence of Monetary and Fiscal Policy on Aggregate DemandChapter 34: The Short-Run Trade-Off between Inflation and UnemploymentChapter 35: The Theory of Consumer ChoiceChapter 36: Frontiers of MicroeconomicsChapter 37: Monopoly and Antitrust PolicyChapter 38: Oligopoly and Game TheoryChapter 39: Externalities, Public Goods, and Environmental Policy Chapter 40: Uncertainty and InformationChapter 41: Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply Analysis Chapter 42: Understanding Business CyclesChapter 43: Fiscal PolicyChapter 44: Money, Banking, and Central BankingChapter 45: Monetary PolicyChapter 46: Inflation, Disinflation, and DeflationChapter 47: Exchange Rates and the International Financial SystemChapter 48: The Short - Run Trade - Off between Inflation and Unemployment RevisitedChapter 49: Macroeconomic Policy: Challenges in the Twenty - First CenturyEpilogue: 14 Big IdeasNote: The chapter titles have been abbreviated for simplicity and brevity purposes.。
经济学名词解释_英文版
How people make decisions: 1. people face trade offs2. The cost of something is what you give up to get it3. Rational people think at the margin4. People respond to incentivesHow people interact: 5.trade can make everyone better off6. Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity7. Government can sometimes improve market outcomesHow the economy as 8. A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produceA whole works: goods and services9. Prices rise when the government prints too much money10. Society faces a short-run tradeoff betweeninflation and unemploymentKey concepts:Ability-to-pay principle（税收的）能力支付原则: The idea that taxes should be levied on a person according to how well that person can shoulder the burdenAbsolute advantage绝对优势: The comparison among producers of a good according to their productivityAccounting profit会计利润: Total revenue minus total explicit cost Adverse selection逆向选择: The tendency for the mix of unobserved attributes to become undesirable from the standpoint of an uninformed party Agent代理人: A person who is performing an act for another person, called the principalAggregate-demand curve: a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price levelAggregate risk: risk that affects all economic actors at onceAggregate-supply curve: a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level Appreciation: an increase in the value of a currency as measured by the amount of foreign currency it can buyArrow’s impossibility theorem阿罗不可能定理: A mathematical result showing that, under certain assumed conditions, there is no scheme for aggregating individual preferences into a valid set of social preferencesAverage fixed cost平均固定成本: Fixed costs divided by the quantity of outputAverage revenue平均收益: Total revenue divided by the quantity sold Average tax rate平均税率: Total taxes paid divided by total income Average total cost平均总成本: Total cost divided by the quantity of output Average variable cost平均可变成本: Variable costs divided by the quantity of outputAutomatic stabilizers: changes in fiscal policy that stimulate aggregate demand when the economy goes into a recession without policymakers having to take any deliberate actionBalance trade: a situation in which exports equal importsBenefits principle受益原则: The idea that people should pay taxes based on the benefits they receive from government servicesBond: a certificate of indebtednessBudget constraint预算约束: The limit on the consumption bundles that a consumer can affordBudget deficit预算赤字: An excess of government spending over government receiptsBudget surplus预算盈余: An excess of government receipts over government spendingBusiness cycle经济周期: Fluctuations in economic activity, such as employment and productionCapital资产: The equipment and structures used to produce goods and servicesCapital flight: a large and sudden reduction in the demand for assets located in a countryCartel 卡特尔: A group of firms acting in unisonCatch-up effect 后发效应: the property whereby countries that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly that countries that start off richCentral bank: an institution designed to oversee the banking system and regulate the quantity of money in the economyCircular-flow diagram循环流向图: A visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms Closed economy: an economy that does not interact with other economies in the worldCollective bargaining: the process by which unions and firms agree on the terms of employmentCommodity money: money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic valueCoase theorem科斯定理: The proposition that if private parties can bargain without cost over the allocation of resources, they can solve the problem of externalities on their ownCollusion共谋: An agreement among firms in a market about quantities to produce or prices to chargeCommon resources共同资源: Goods that are rival but not excludable Comparative advantage比较优势: The comparison among producers of a good according to their opportunity costCompensating differential补偿性工资差别: A difference in wages that arises to offset the nonmonetary characteristics of different jobsCompetitive market竞争性市场: A market with many buyers and sellers trading identical products so that each buyer and seller is a price taker Complements互补性商品: Two goods for which an increase in the price of one leads to a decrease in the demand for the otherCondorcet paradox: the failure of majority rule to produce transitive preferences for societyCompounding: the accumulation of a sum of money in, say, a bank account, where the interest earned remains in the account to earn additional interest in the futureConstant returns to scale规模报酬不变: The property whereby long-run average total cost stays the same as the quantity of outputConsumer price index (CPI): a measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumerConsumer surplus消费者剩余: A buyer’s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays Consumption: spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housingCost成本: The value of everything a seller must give up producing a good Cost-benefit analysis成本收益分析: A study that compares the costs and benefits to society of providing a public goodCrowding out: a decrease in investment that results from government borrowingCrowding-out effect: the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raise the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spendingCross-price elasticity of demand需求的交叉价格弹性: A measure of how much the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded of the first good divided by the percentage change in the price of the second goodCurrency: the paper bills and coins in the hands of the publicCyclical unemployment: the deviation of unemployment from a market distortion, such as a taxDeadweight loss无谓损失: The fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a taxDemand curve需求曲线: A graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDemand deposits: balances in bank accounts that depositors can access on demand by writing a checkDemand schedule需求表: A table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demandedDepreciation: a decrease in the value of a currency as measured by the amount of foreigh currency it can buyDepression: a severe recessionDiminishing marginal product边际产品递减: The property whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases Discrimination歧视: The offering of different opportunities to similar individuals who differ only by race, ethnic group, sex, age, or other personal characteristicsDiseconomies of scale规模不经济: The property whereby long-run average total cost rises as the quantity of output increasesDiscount rate: the interest rate on the loans that the Fed makes to banks Discouraged workers: individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for jobDiversification: the reduction of risk achieved by replacing a single risk with a large number of smaller unrelated risksDominant strategy占优策略: A strategy that is best for a player in a game regardless of the strategies chosen by the other playersEconomic profit经济利润: Total revenue minus total cost, including both explicit and implicit costsEconomics经济学: The study of how society manages its scarce resources Economies of scale规模经济: The property whereby long-run average total cost falls as the quantity of output increasesEfficiency效率: The property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resourcesEfficiency wages效率工资: Above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivityEfficient scale: the quantity of output that minimizes average total cost Elasticity: a measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded or quantitysupplied to one of its determinantsEquilibrium: a situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demandedEquilibrium price: the price that balances quantity supplied and quantity demandedEquilibrium quantity: the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded at the equilibrium priceEquity: the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of societyExcludability: the property of a good whereby a person can be prevented from using itExplicit costs: input costs that require an outlay of money by the firm Export: goods produced domestically and sold abroadExternality: the uncompensated impact of one person’s actions on the wellbeing of a bystanderFactors of production: the inputs used to produce goods and services Federal reserve (Fed) : the central bank of the united statesFiat money: money without intrinsic value that is used as money because of government decreeFinance: the field that studies how people make decisions regarding the allocation of resources over time and the handling of riskFinancial intermediaries: financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowersFinancial markets: financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowersFinancial system: the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investmentFisher effect: the one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rateFractional-reserve banking: a banking system in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reservesFrictional unemployment: unemployment that results because it takes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes and skills Fundamental analysis: the study of a company’s accounting statements and future prospects to determine its valueFuture value: the amount of money in the future that an amount of money today will yield, given prevailing interest ratesFixed costs: costs that do not vary with the quantity of output producedFree rider: a person who receives the benefit of a good but avoids paying foritGame theory: the study of how people behave in strategic situationsGDP deflator: a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100Government purchases: spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal governmentsGross domestic product GDP: the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of timeHorizontal equity: the idea that taxpayers with similar abilities to pay taxes should pay the same amountHuman capital: the accumulation of investment in people, such as education and on-the-job trainingIdiosyncratic risk: risk that affects only a single economic actorImplicit costs: input costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firm Import quota: a limit on the quantity of a good that can be produced abroad and sold domesticallyImports: goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyIncome effect: the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer to a higher or lower indifference curveIncome elasticity of demand: a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in consumers’ income, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in incomeIndexation: the automatic correction of a dollar amount for the effects of inflation by law or contractIndifference curve: a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfactionInferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to a decrease in demandInflation: an increase in the overall level of prices in the economyInflation rate: the percentage change in the price index from the preceding periodInflation tax: the revenue the government raises by creating money Informationally efficient: reflecting all available information in a rational wayI n-kind transfers: transfers to the poor given in the form of goods and services rather than cashInternalizing an externality: altering incentives so that people take account of the external effects of their actionsInvestment: spending on capital equipment, inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housingJob search: the process by which workers find appropriate jobs given their tastes and skillslabor force: the total number of workers, including both the employed and the unemployedLabor-force participation rate: the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor forceLaw of demand: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good risesLaw of supply: the claim that, other things equal, the quantity supplied of a good rises when the price of the good risesLaw of supply and demand: the claim that the price of any good adjusts to bring the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded for that good into balanceLiberalism:the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies deemed to be just, as evaluated by an impartial observe behind a “veil of ignorance”Libertarianism: the political philosophy according to which the government should punish crimes and enforce voluntary agreements but not redistribute incomeLife cycle: the regular pattern of income variation over a person’s life Liquidity: the ease with wh ich an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchangeLump-sum tax: a tax that is the same amount for every person Macroeconomics: the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growthMarginal changes: small incremental adjustments to a plan of action Marginal cost: the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of productionMarginal product: the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of inputMarginal product of labor: the increase in the amount of output from an additional unit of laborMarginal rate of substitution: the rate at which a consumer is willing to trade one good for anotherMarginal revenue: the change in total revenue from an additional unit sold Marginal tax rate: the extra taxes paid on an additional dollar of income Market: a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or servicesMarket economy: an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and servicesMarket failure: a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficientlyMarket for loanable funds: the market in which those who want to save supply funds and those who want to borrow to invest demand fundsMarket power: the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market pricesMaximin criterion: the claim that the government should aim to maximize the well-being of the worst-off person in societyMedian voter theorem: a mathematical result showing that if voters are choosing a point along a line and each voter wants the point closest to his most preferred point, then majority rule will pick the most preferred point of the median voterMenu cost: the costs of changing pricesMicroeconomics: the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in marketsModel of aggregate demand and aggregate supply: the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trendMonetary neutrality: the proposition that changes in the money supply do not affect real variablesMonetary policy: the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bankMoney: the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other peopleMoney multiplier: the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reservesMoney supply: the quantity of money available in the economy monopolistic competition: market structures in which many firms sell products that are similar but not identicalMonopoly: a firm that is the sole seller of a product without close substitutes Moral hazard: the tendency of a person who is imperfectly monitored to engage in dishonest or otherwise undesirable behaviorMultiplier effect: the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumer spendingMutual fund: an institution that sells shares to the public and uses theproceeds to buy a portfolio of stocks and bondsNash equilibrium: a situation in which economic actors interacting with one another each choose their best strategy given the strategies that all the more firmsNational saving: the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchasesNatural-rate hypothesis: the claim that unemployment eventually returns to its normal, or natural, rate, regardless of the rate of inflationNatural rate of unemployment: the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuatesNatural resources: the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral depositsNegative income tax: a tax system that collects revenue from high-income households and gives transfers to low-income householdsNet capital outflow: the purchases of foreign assets by domestic residents minus the purchases of domestic assets by foreignersNet exports: the value of a nation’s exports minus the value of its imports; also called the trade balanceNominal GDP: the production of goods and services valued at current prices Nominal interest rate: the interest rate as usually reported without a correction for the effects of inflationNominal variables: variables measured in monetary unitsNormal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demandNormative statement: claims that attempt to prescribe how the world should beOligopoly: a market structure in which only a few sellers offer similar or identical productsOpen economy: an economy that interacts freely with other economies around the worldOpen-market operations: the purchase and sale of U.S. government bonds by the FedOpportunity cost: whatever must be given up to obtain some itemPerfect complement: two goods with right-angle indifference curvesPerfect substitutes: two goods with straight-line indifference curves Permanent income: a person’s normal incomePhillips curve: a curve that shows the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemploymentPhysical capital: the stock of equipment and structures that are used toproduce goods and servicesPositive statements: claims that attempt to describe the world as It is Pigovian tax: a tax enacted to correct the effects of a negative externality Positive statements: claims that attempt to describe the world as it is Poverty line: an absolute level of income set by the federal government for each family size below which a family is deemed to be in povertyPoverty rate贫困率: The percentage of the population whose family income falls below an absolute level called the poverty linePresent value: the amount of money today that would be needed to produce, using prevailing interest rates, a given future amount of moneyPrice ceiling 价格上限: a legal maximum on the price at which a good can be soldPrice discrimination: the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customersPrice elasticity of demand: a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in pricePrice elasticity of supply: a measure of how much the quantity supplied of a good responds to a change in the price of that good, computed as the percentage change in quantity supplied divided by the percentage change in pricePrice floor 价格下限: a legal minimum on the price at which a good can be soldPrincipal: a person for whom another person, called the agent, is performing some actPrisoners’ dilemma: a particular “game” between two captured prisoners that illustrates why cooperation is difficult to maintain even when it is mutually beneficialPrivate saving: the income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumptionPrivate goods: goods that are both excludable and rivalProducer price index: a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firmsProducer surplus生产者剩余: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s costProduction function生产函数: the relationship between quantity of input used to make a good and the quantity of output of that goodProduction possibilities frontier: a graph that shows the combinations ofoutput that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technologyProductivity 生产力: the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s timeProfit 利润: Total revenue minus total costProgressive tax累进税: a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a larger fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersProportional tax比例税: a tax for which high-income and low-income taxpayers pay the same fraction of incomePublic goods: goods that are neither excludable nor rivalPublic saving: the tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spendingQuantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchaseQuantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers are willing and able to sellRandom walk: the path of a variable whose changes are impossible to predict Rational expectations: the theory according to which people optimally use all the information they have, including information about government policies, when forecasting the futureReal exchange rate: the rate at which a person can trade the goods and services of one country for the goods and services of anotherReal GDP: the production of goods and services valued at constant prices Real interest rate: the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflationReal variables: variables measured in physical unitsRecession: a period of declining real incomes and rising unemployment Reserve ratio: the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reservesReserve requirements: regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against depositsRegressive tax累退税: a tax for which high-income taxpayers pay a smaller fraction of their income than do low-income taxpayersreserves: deposits that banks have received but have not loaned outRisk averse: exhibiting a dislike of uncertaintyRivalry竞争: the property of a good whereby one person’s use diminishes other people’s use Sacrifice ratio: the number of percentage points of annual output lost in the process of reducing inflation by 1 percentage point Scarcity稀缺性: the limited nature of society’s resourcesScreening筛选: an action taken by an uninformed party to induce aninformed party to reveal informationShoeleather costs: the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdingsShortage: a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity suppliedSignaling信号显示: an action taken by an informed party to reveal private information to an uninformed partyStagflation: a period of falling output and rising pricesStock: a claim to partial ownership in a firmStore of value: an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the futureStrike: the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union Substitutes替代品: two goods for which an increase in the piece of one leads to an increase in the demand for the otherSubstitution effect替代效应: the change in consumption that results when a price change moves the consumer along a given indifference curve to a point with a new marginal rate of substitutionSunk cost沉淀成本: a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recoveredSupply curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSupply schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity suppliedSupply shock: an event that directly alters firms’ costs and prices, shifting the economy’s aggregate-supply curve and thus the Phillips curveSurplus过剩: a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demandedTariff关税: a tax on goods produced abroad and sold domesticallyTax incidence税收归宿: the manner in which the burden of a tax is shared among participants in a marketTechnological knowledge: society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and servicesTotal cost: the market value of the inputs a firm uses in productionTotal revenue: the amount a firm receives for the sale of its outputTotal revenue (in a market): the amount paid by buyers and received by sellers of a good, computed as the price of the good times the quantity sold Trade balance: the value of a nation’s exports minus the value of its imports; also called net exportsTrade deficit: an excess of imports over exportsTrade policy: a government policy that directly influences the quantity of goods and services that a country imports or exportsTrade surplus: an excess of exports over importsTragedy of the commons公共地的悲剧: a parable that illustrates why common resources get used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a wholeTransaction costs交易成本: the costs that parties incur in the process of agreeing and following through on a bargain Unemployment rate: the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed Unemployment insurance: a government program that partially protects worker’s income when they become unemployedUnion: a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditionsUnit of account 计价单位: the yardstick people use to post prices and record debtsUtilitarianism功利主义: the political philosophy according to which the government should choose policies to maximize the total utility of everyone in societyUtility效用: a measure of happiness or satisfactionValue of the marginal product边际产品价值: the marginal product of an input times the price of the outputVariable costs: costs that vary with the quantity of output producedVelocity of money 货币流通速度: the rate at which money changes Vertical equity纵向公平: the idea that taxpayers with a greater ability to pay taxes should pay larger amountsWelfare: government programs that supplement the incomes of the needy Welfare economics福利经济学: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-beingWillingness to pay支付愿意: the maximum amount that buyer will pay for a goodWorld price: the price of a good that prevails in the world market for that good。
模拟试题01
模拟试题一“Everything that can be invented has been invented.” 1 these sweeping words, the Commissioner of the U.S. Office of Patents recommended in 1899 that his office be 2 . So spectacular had been the 3 of innovation in the late 19th century. History is 4 with such foolish predictions about technology. The lesson is that 5 analysis of the economic consequences of the current burst of innovation in information technology should proceed with 6 . At one end, the Internet’s boosters have 7 proclaimed it as the greatest invention since the wheel, transforming the world so radically 8 the old economics textbooks need tearing up. 9 , skeptics say that computers and the Internet are not 10 as important as steam power, the telegraph or electricity. In their view, IT 11 “insignificant toy”, and when the technology bubble bursts, its economic benefit will 12 to be no greater than that of the 17th-century tulip bubble.The first programmable electronic computer, with a memory of 20 words, was 13 in 1964, but the IT revolution did not really start 14 the spread of mainframe computers in the late 1960s and the invention of microprocessor in 1971. The 15 of technological advance since then has been popularly summed up by Moore’s Law. Gordon Moore, the co-founder of Intel, 16 in 1965 that the processing power of a silicon chip would double every 18 months. And 17 it has, resulting in an enormous increase in computer processing capacity and a sharp 18 in costs. Scientists reckon that Moore’s Law still has 19 another decade to run. By 2010 a typical computer is 20 to have ten times the processing power of a computer in 1975, at a lower cost.1. ［A］As ［B］With ［C］Of ［D］For2. ［A］abolished ［B］cancelled ［C］disposed ［D］extinguished3. ［A］overflow ［B］flood ［C］wave ［D］splash4. ［A］dirtied ［B］messed ［C］scattered ［D］littered5. ［A］some ［B］much ［C］any ［D］each6. ［A］care ［B］courage ［C］risk ［D］determination7. ［A］cautiously ［B］boldly ［C］aggressively ［D］justly8. ［A］provided ［B］though ［C］hence ［D］that9. ［A］As a matter of fact ［B］At the other extreme［C］For this reason ［D］Despite all this10. ［A］distantly ［B］broadly ［C］remotely ［D］widely11. ［A］take after ［B］abide by ［C］agree with ［D］stand for12. ［A］step up ［B］hold on ［C］set out ［D］turn out13. ［A］formed ［B］built ［C］modeled ［D］copied14. ［A］before ［B］until ［C］since ［D］from15. ［A］pace ［B］origin ［C］scope ［D］impact16. ［A］concluded ［B］remembered ［C］forecast ［D］argued17. ［A］so ［B］such ［C］thus ［D］still18. ［A］descent ［B］decline ［C］deterioration ［D］depression19. ［A］at worst ［B］at most ［C］at least ［D］at best20. ［A］surely ［B］possibly ［C］certainly ［D］likelyText 1Class informed everything from the circumstances of patients’ heart attacks to the emergency care each received, the households they returned to and the jobs they hoped to resume. It shaped their understanding of their illness, the support they got from their families, their relationships with their doctors. It helped define their ability to change their lives and shaped their odds of getting better.Class is a potent force in health and longevity in the United States. The more education and income people have, the less likely they are to have and die of heart disease, strokes, diabetes and many types of cancer. Upper-middle-class Americans live longer and in better health than middle-class Americans, who live longer and better than those at the bottom. And the gaps are widening, say people who have researched social factors in health.As advances in medicine and disease prevention have increased life expectancy in the United States, the benefits have disproportionately gone to people with education, money, good jobs and connections. They are almost invariably in the best position to learn new information early, modify their behavior, take advantage of the latest treatments and have the cost covered by insurance.Many risk factors for chronic diseases are now more common among the less educated than the better educated. Smoking has dropped sharply among the better educated, but not among the less. Physical inactivity is more than twice as common among high school dropouts as among college graduates. Lower-income women are more likely than other women to be overweight, though the pattern among men may be the opposite.There may also be subtler differences. Some researchers now believe that the stress involved in so-called high-demand, low-control jobs further down the occupational scale is more harmful than the stress of professional jobs that come with greater autonomy and control. Others are studying the health impact of job insecurity, lack of support on the job, and employment that makes it difficult to balance work and family obligations.Then there is the issue of social networks and support, the differences in the knowledge, time and attention that a person’s family and friends are in a position to offer. What is the effect of social isolation? Neighborhood differences have also been studied: How stressful is a neighborhood? Are there safe places to exercise? What are the health effects of discrimination?“In the last 20 years, there have been enormous advances in rescuing patients with heart attack and in knowledge about how to prevent heart attack,”said Ichiro Kawachi, a professor of social epidemiology at the Harvard School of Public Health. “It’s like diffusion of innovation: whenever innovation comes along, the well-to-do are much quicker at adopting it. On the lower end, various disadvantages have piled onto the poor. Diet has gotten worse. There’s a lot more work stress. People have less time, if they’re poor, to devote to health maintenance behaviors when they are juggling two jobs. Morality rates even among the poor are coming down, but the rate is not anywhere near as fast as for the well-to-do. So the gap has increased.”21.Which of the following is probably not class-determined?［A］The quality of health care one receives.［B］Knowledge of illness one has.［C］The odds one gives the doctor a good impression.［D］The relationship one establishes with the family.22.Which of the following is NOT true according to the passage?［A］It is easier for the people at the bottom to get chronic diseases.［B］Health steadily worsens as one descends the social ladder.［C］The less educated cannot take advantage of medical advances.［D］Chronic diseases are often associated with people’s unhealthy lifestyle.23.What can be inferred from the passage?［A］Health inequalities situation within America appears to be improving.［B］There are high correlations between education and earning power.［C］Jobs with high control and social support pose a smaller threat to the health.［D］The risk of ill health is greatest among people being discriminated against.24.The gap between the rich and poor _____.［A］is revealed also in morality rate［B］grows at the same pace as the rate of innovation［C］is not yet obvious in the United States［D］shrinks with the advances in medicine25.The passage is mainly about _____.［A］great progress America has made in medicine［B］Americans’ concern about health［C］factors affecting people’s health［D］the widening health gap between different classesText 2Islamic terrorism may be a distant threat for Shearer Lumber Products, a timber company based in Idaho. But eco-terrorism is a very real one. In November, the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), an underground organization, gave warning that it had“spiked”trees in the Nez Perce national forest to protest against logging. Spiking involves hiding metal bars in tree trunks, thereby potentially crippling chain saws and hurting people. More such attacks are expected. How do they fit into America’s war on terrorism?The nation’s forests have seen a sharp increase in violent incidents—equipment vandalized, people intimidated—over the past ten years. Shearer now carefully inspects every tree before cutting and has been using metal detectors to check every trunk being processed. Yet Ihor Mereszczak, of the Nez Perce Forest Service, says it has been hard to get the FBI’s attention, and investigations have got nowhere.The ELF is only one thread in a web of underground radical environmentalists. Its aim is toinflict as much financial pain as possible on organizations or people who, by its lights, are exploiting the environment. The ELF, though made up of anonymous cells, nonetheless operates a website offering tips on how to cause fires with electric timers. Until recently, it also had a public spokesman.Together with the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), which operates along the same lines, the ELF is estimated to be responsible for over $45m-worth of damage in North America over the past few years. In 1998, it caused fires that did $12m-worth of damage in Vail, Colorado, to make the point that the ski resort’s expansion was threatening places where lynxes live. Earlier this year, the ELF burned down the offices of a lumber company in Oregon. Since September 11th, the ALF and ELF have claimed responsibility for starting a fire at a primate research center in New Mexico, releasing mink from an Iowa fur farm, and firebombing a federal corral for wild horses in California.Are they terrorists? The two groups reject the label, claiming to take all precautions against harming “animals, whether humans or not”. But earlier this year Louis Freeh, the FBI’s boss, listed both organizations among the most active domestic terrorist groups. Scott McInnis, the Republican congressman whose district includes Vail, argues it is only a matter of time before somebody gets hurt, and he now expects the FBI to put in more resources.The House subcommittee on forests, which Mr McInnis heads, will hold a hearing on eco-terrorism in February. But he has annoyed some mainstream green groups by asking them to denounce the ELF’s and ALF’s methods. Greenpeace, for instance, says that its disapproval is self-evident, and resents being asked to express it. Mr. McInnis still wants their answer by December 1st, but the war on eco-terrorism is off to a rocky start.26. What did the ELF do to Shearer Lumber Products?［A］Hurt its employees. ［B］Crippled its equipments.［C］Hid metals in its trees. ［D］Protested against its spiking.27. We can infer from the passage that_____.［A］Shearer has experienced many violent incidents［B］new tools have been used to investigate terrorists［C］FBI has been active in the war on eco-terrorism［D］ELF openly declares its beliefs and ends28. According to ELF, all of the following are environmentally harmful except_____.［A］causing fire in the houses ［B］expanding ski resort［C］doing research on animals ［D］invading into animal habitats29. It is true of radical environmentalists that they_____.［A］aim at causing damage to companies［B］resort to violence to achieve their purpose［C］will do no harm to real people［D］are divided on opinions about terrorism30.The best title for the text may be_____ .［A］The Green Threat ［B］Protecting Forests［C］Earth’s Liberation ［D］Terrorism DefeatedText 3Rebel uprising kills seventy! Plane crash leaves no survivors! Rock star dies of overdose!Evening newscasts and metropolitan newspapers scream the bad news, the sensational, and the action.Audiences of today focus upon the sensational action, the violence, the loss, the terror. Individually, our lives are redirected, our worlds reshaped, and our images changed. While wary of the danger of change, we human beings surrender daily to exploitation of values, opportunities, and sensitivity. The evolution has brought us to the point that we believe little of what is presented to us as good and valuable; instead, we opt for suspicion and disbelief, demanding proof and something for nothing.Therein lies the danger for the writer seeking to break into the market of today. Journalists sell sensationalism - information as action. The journalist who loses sight of the simple truth and opts only for the sensation loses the audience over the long run. Only those seeking a short-term thrill are interested in following the journalistic thinking.How, then do we capture the audience of today and hold it, when the competition for attention is so fierce? The answer is writing to convey action, and the way to accomplish this is a simple one —action verbs.The writer whose product suspends time for the reader or viewer is the successful writer whose work is sought and reread. Why?Time often will melt away in the face of the reality of life’s little responsibilities for the reader. Instead of puzzling over a more active and more accurate verb, some journalists often limp through passive voice and useless tense to squeeze the life out of an action-filled world and fill their writing with missed opportunities to appeal to the reader who seeks that moment of suspended time.Recently, a reporter wrote about observing the buildings in a community robbed by rebel uprising as “thousands of bullet holes were in the hotel.”A very general observation. Suppose he had written, “The hotel was pocked (使有麻点) with bullet holes.”The visual image conjured up by the latter is far superior to the former. Here is the reader… comfortable in the easy chair before the fire with the dog at his feet. The verb “pocked” speaks to him.The journalist missed the opportunity to convey the reality.31. This passage provides information to support which of the following?[A] Journalists of today find excitement that they convey to their readers.[B] The need for accurate reporting is obvious in the lack of human-interest stories.[C] In order to appeal to the public, one must write only about sensational topics.[D] Writing that is not lively escapes the reader’s imagination.32. The journalist anxious to capture the reader’s attention will[A] exploit the short attention span and sensationalize the story.[B] report only the familiar incidents in order to achieve the transfer of understanding.[C] attempt to add spice to writing with invented incidents.[D] utilize events and actions to transport the reader to the incident at hand.33. The author suggests that readers are affected by which one of the following?[A] dull writing [B] international incidents[C] active writing [D] local current event34. According to the author, which of the following might be true of journalists?[A] Most journalists are eager to report the truth.[B] Journalists only want to exploit the readers.[C] Language is the tool of journalists.[D] Journalists seek the easy way out.35. The best title of the article might be?[A] Audience Distracted by Journalists.[B] Journalists：Sensationalism Sellers.[C] Return to Vivid Description.[D] How to Become a Competent Reporter.Text 4High school students in Hong Kong, Finland and South Korea do best in mathematics among those in 40 surveyed countries while students in the United States finished in the bottom half, according to a new international comparison of mathematical skills shown by 15-year-olds. The study, released Monday by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, a group based in Paris representing 30 nations, used tests given to students in 2003 and was intended to assess relative performance and to try to determine reasons for it.“The gap between the best and worst performing countries has widened,” said Andreas Schleicher, the official who directed the study and wrote the report. The study compared student performance in 29 of the 30 countries in the organization, which includes all major industrialized nations, and in 11 other countries that chose to participate. Because of insufficient participation in the study, figures for Britain were not reported.The study devoted less attention to reading than did a previous one in 2000, but it provided rankings that showed relatively little change. The United States finished 18th, higher than nations like Denmark, Germany and Hungary, all of which had students who performed better in math than American students did.The study looked not only at the average performance of students, but also at how many from each country were top performers. It separated students into seven groups, ranging from Level 6, the best, to Level 1, which the authors viewed as a minimal level of competence. In the United States, 10 percent of the students were in one of the top two groups, less than half as many as inCanada and a third the total of the leader, Hong Kong, which had 30.7 percent of its students in the top two categories.The evaluation asked questions that were intended to test the ability of students to recognize what mathematical calculations were needed, and then to perform them, and to deal with questions that they would confront as citizens. Mr. Schleicher said that students in countries that emphasized theorems and rote learning tended not to do as well as those that emphasized the more practical aspects of mathematics.The survey also questioned students about their own views of themselves and their work, and found that while good students were more likely to think they were good, countries that did well often had a large number of students who did not feel they were doing well. In the United States, 36 percent of the students agreed with the statement, “I am just not good at mathematics,” while in Hong Kong, 57 percent agreed. In South Korea the figure was 62 percent. Of the United States students, 72 percent said they got good grades in mathematics, more than in any other country. In Hong Kong, only 25 percent of the students said they got good marks, the lowest of any country.The study said that while girls typically did only a little worse than boys on the test, “the y consistently report much lower interest in and enjoyment of mathematics” and “much higher levels of helplessness and stress in mathematics classes.”Regarding spending, the study concluded that “while spending on educational institutions is a necessary prerequisite for the provision of high-quality education, spending alone is not sufficient to achieve high levels of outcomes.”It noted that while the Czech Republic spent only one third as much per student as the United States did, it was one of the top10performing nations in the study, while the United States performed below the average of the nations surveyed.36. Why was an international survey of mathematic skills held?[A] To strength international cooperation.[B] To enhance mathematic teaching level.[C] To evaluate educational level of nations.[D] To select mathematic talents.37. Which of the following is true according to the passage?[A] Altogether 29 countries participated in the new international survey.[B] Britain refused to disclose the performance results of its students.[C] American students’ reading ability has improved compared with before.[D] Girls showed less interest in mathematics than boys.38. What is probably the key to the success of Hong Kong?[A] Enthusiasm towards mathematics of the students.[B] High level of competence of the students.[C] Economic support of the govemment.[D] Traditional teaching method of the schools.39. In what aspect were the America students most prominent in the survey（突出）?[A] Practical skills [B] Citizen moral[C] Adaptation to change [D] self-confidence40. How did the author estimate American high school education?[A] High quality [B] Grades-oriented[C] Low cost effectiveness [D] Low input levelPart BAs more and more material from other cultures became available, European scholars came to recognize even greater complexity in mythological traditions. Especially valuable was the evidence provided by ancient Indian and Iranian texts such as the Bhagavad-Gita and the Zend-Avesta. From these sources it became apparent that the character of myths varied widely, not only by geographical region but also by historical period.（41）__________He argued that the relatively simple Greek myth of Persephone reflects the concerns of a basic agricultural community, whereas the more involved and complex myths found later in Homer are the product of a more developed society.Scholars also attempted to tie various myths of the world together in some way. From the late 18th century through the early 19th century, the comparative study of languages had led to the reconstruction of a hypothetical parent language to account for striking similarities among the various languages of Europe and the Near East. These languages, scholars concluded, belonged to an Indo-European language family. Experts on mythology likewise searched for a parent mythology that presumably stood behind the mythologies of all the European peoples.（42）__________For example, an expression like “maiden dawn” for “sunrise” resulted fi rst in personification of the dawn, and then in myths about her.Later in the 19th century the theory of evolution put forward by English naturalist Charles Darwin heavily influenced the study of mythology. Scholars researched on the history of mythology, much as they would dig fossil-bearing geological formations, for remains from the distant past.（43）__________Similarly, British anthropologist Sir James George Frazer proposed a three-stage evolutionary scheme in The Golden Bough. According to Frazer’s scheme, human beings first attributed natural phenomena to arbitrary supernatural forces (magic), later explaining them as the will of the gods (religion), and finally subjecting them to rational investigation (science).The research of British scholar William Robertson Smith, published in Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889), also influenced Frazer. Through Smith’s work, Frazer came to believe that many myths had their origin in the ritual practices of ancient agricultural peoples, for whom the annual cycles of vegetation were of central importance.（44）__________This approach reached its most extreme form in the so-called functionalism of British anthropologist A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, who held that every myth implies a ritual, and every ritual implies a myth.Most analyses of myths in the 18th and 19th centuries showed a tendency to reduce myths to some essential core—whether the seasonal cycles of nature, historical circumstances, or ritual. That core supposedly remained once the fanciful elements of the narratives had been stripped away. In the 20th century, investigators began to pay closer attention to the content of the narratives themselves.（45）__________[A] German-born British scholar Max Müller concluded that the Rig-Veda of ancient India-the oldest preserved body of literature written in an Indo-European language-reflected the earliest stages of an Indo-European mythology. M ller attributed all later myths to misunderstandings that arose from the picturesque terms in which early peoples described natural phenomena.[B] The myth and ritual theory, as this approach came to be called, was developed most fully by British scholar Jane Ellen Harrison. Using insight gained from the work of French sociologist Emile Durkheim, Harrison argued that all myths have their origin in collective rituals of a society.[C] Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud held that myths—like dreams—condense the material of experience and represent it in symbols.[D] This approach can be seen in the work of British anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor. In Primitive Culture (1871), Tylor organized the religious and philosophical development of humanity into separate and distinct evolutionary stages.[E] The studies made in this period were consolidated in the work of German scholar Christian Gottolob Heyne, who was the first scholar to use the Latin term myths (instead of fibula, meaning “fable”) to refer to the tales of her oes and gods.[F] German scholar Karl Otfried M ller followed this line of inquiry in his Prolegomena to a Scientific Mythology, 1825).Part CWithin economic theory, there are in any case quite different assumptions about individual behaviour. Some neoclassical models assume that individuals’ expectations are rational, that is, they draw economically optimal conclusions from available information. In other models, expectations are more slowly“adaptive”, or there is uncertainty about the future. Yet experi mental research shows that most people are remarkably bad at assessing their own economic best interest, even when they are given clear information and time to learn. Faced with a simple economic dilemma, people are quite likely to make the wrong decision because of “bounded rationality”(the effect of misleading preconceptions or emotions) or basic computational mistakes (the inability to calculate probabilities and discount rates). Psychologists have also identified the phenomenon of “myopic discounting”: our tendency to prefer a large reward later to a small reward soon—a preference we then switch as the small reward becomes irresistibly imminent. (46) Prospect theorists have shown that people are risk-averse when choosing between a certain gain and apossible bigger gain—they will choose the certain but smaller gain—but not when offered a choice between a certain loss and a possible bigger loss.Most economic institutions, if they depend on credit, also depend in some measure on credibility. But credibility can be based on credulity. (47) In late nineteenth-century France, Therese Humbert enjoyed a glittering career on the basis of a chest supposedly containing a hundred million francs in bearer bonds, which it was claimed she had inherited from her natural father, a mysterious Portuguese (later American) millionaire named Crawford. Borrowing against these securities, she and her husband were able to buy a luxurious hotel in the avenue de la Grande Armée, to gain a controlling interest in a Parisian newspaper and to engineer his election as a socialist deputy. Ten thousand people gathered outside the house when the box was finally opened in May 1902. It was found to contain“nothing but an old newspaper, an Italian coin and a trouser button.”(48) Even when we are not miscalculating—as the Humberts’creditors plainly did—our economic calculations are often subordinated to our biological impulses: the desire to reproduce, rooted(according to neo-Darwinian theories) in our“selfish genes”, the capacity for viole nce against rivals for mates and sustenance—to say nothing of the erotic or morbid forms of behaviour analysed by Freud, which cannot always be explained by evolutionary biology. Man is a social animal whose motivations are inseparable from his cultural milieu. (49) As Max Weber argued, even the profit motive has its roots in a not wholly rational asceticism, a desire to work for its own sake which is as much religious as economic. Under different cultural conditions, human beings may prefer leisure to toil. Or they may win the esteem of their fellows by economically irrational behaviour; for social status is seldom the same as mere purchasing power.And man is also a political animal. The groups into which human beings divide themselves—kinship groups, tribes, faiths, nations, classes and parties (not forgetting firms)—satisfy two fundamental needs: the desire for security (safety, both physical and psychological, in numbers) and what Nietzsche called the will to power: the satisfaction that comes from dominating other weaker groups. No theory has adequately described this phenomenon, not least because individuals are plainly capable of sustaining multiple, overlapping identities; and of tolerating the proximity of quite different groups, and indeed co-operating with them. (50) Only occasionally, and for reasons which seem historically specific, are people willing to accept an exclusive group identity. Only sometimes—but often enough—does the competition between groups descend into violence.Part A51. You bought a mobile phone from a department store, but found it broken three days later. When you returned it to the store the assistant refused to replace or repair it. Write a letter to the customer service manager,1) telling about the bad service you received 2) asking for a replacement of your mobile phoneWrite your letter with no less than 100 words on ANSWER SHEET2. Use "Li Ming" instead of your own name at the end of the letter. You do not need to write the address. (10 points)Part B52. Directions:Study the following drawing carefully and write an essay in which you should1) describe the drawing, 2) interpret its implications, 3) give your comments.。