Carbon footprints of Indian food items

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Carbon footprints

Carbon footprints碳足迹Following the footprints追寻碳足迹Environment: Carbon-footprint labels, which indicate a product’s environmental impact, are quietly spreading. Consumers may not have noticed them yet, but there is a lot going on behind the scenes环境：用以表明一个产品的环境影响的碳足迹标签，正悄悄流行起来。

也许仍未引起消费者的注意，但已有诸多事情发生在在公众视线之外Jun 2nd 2011 | from the print editionDO YOU look for carbon-footprint labels on goods when shopping? If you do, you are in a small minority. The practice of adding labels to foods and other products, showing the quantity (in grams) of carbon-dioxide emissions associated with making and transporting them, began in 2007 when th e world’s first such labels were applied to a handful of products sold in Britain. The idea was that carbon labels would let shoppers identify products with the smallest carbon footprints, just as other labels already indicate dolphin-friendly tuna, organic milk or Fairtrade coffee. Producers would compete to reduce the carbon footprints of their products, and consumers would be able to tell whether, for example, locally made goods really were greener than imported ones.在购物时你会查看产品的碳足迹标签吗？少数人会这么做，如果你会，你当属其中一员。

让马拉松变得更环保等2则外刊阅读训练-2023届高三英语二轮复习(含答案)

外刊精读让马拉松变得更环保导读：似乎在世界各地，每个主要的大城小镇都会举办年度马拉松比赛。

成千上万的参赛运动员要经受艰难的体能考验，跑完42.1 公里的赛程。

和其它大型比赛一样，马拉松比赛也会产生大量的碳足迹。

数千人乘坐飞机前来参赛或观赛，观众和运动员留在赛道的食物垃圾、包装袋、礼品袋等等。

本期《外刊精读》讨论相关部门针对马拉松比赛所采取的各项环保措施。

一、语篇泛读Even if you’re a couch potato like me, you’ll know the benefits of running - pounding the pavements, working up a sweat, burning off some calories and generally keeping fit. But if you’re a real fitness junkie, the ultimate running challenge is to take part in a marathon.It seems every major city and town aro und the world hosts an annual marathon, with thousands of athletes running a gruelling 42.1 kilometers. Whilst many runners’ motivation is to beat their personal best and cross the finishing line without collapsing, they’re also doing it for a good cause– to generate funds for charity. But like other major events, the marathon also generates a massive carbon footprint. Thousands travel - some by plane - to the location, and waste from food packaging and goody bags gets left behind by spectators and runners. For example, during the London Marathon in 2018, 47,000plastic bottles were collected, although some were recycled.This is becoming a big issue for cities –how to host a worthwhile event, encouraging people to exercise and help charities, whilst protecting the environment? Several cities have developed formal plans to reduce their environmental impact and promote sustainable ideas. One event in Wales, for example, introduced recycling for old running kit and ethically sourced the race t-shirts.It’s something that this year’s London Marathon tried to tackle by reducing the number of drink stations on the running route, giving out water in paper cups and offering some drinks in edible seaweed capsules. They also trialed new bottle belts made from recycled plastic so 700 runners could carry water bottles with them during their run. London Marathon event director Hugh Brasner told the三、测试与练习阅读课文并回答问题。

2020届高考英语冲刺集训：Day 9 7选5阅读(1)

Day 9 7选5阅读(1)Passage 1文体：说明文词数：238 限时：7分钟Carbon FootprintWhile making visits to national parks or forest preserves, you’ll often be told to leave nothing but footprints. 1 One is your physical footprint. The other is what is known as your carbon footprint. 2 Often people consider their carbon footprint to be the result of their immediate use of fossil fuels and energy usage, like cooking with natural gas or using petrol to run their automobiles. 3 This may include the fossil fuel used to transport the food that you buy at your local grocery store, or the energy used to deal with the waste produced in your household.Taking small steps to reduce your carbon footprint and saving energy is actually fairly simple. 4 It requires the burning of fossil fuels to make the bottle, transport it, and get rid of it if it’s not recycled.过滤) systems can reduce your influence and cost for water.Unplugging appliances that are not frequently in use is another way to reduce your carbon footprint. Most of these items have a standby mode(待机模式) that wastes energy even when they’re not in use. 5What is more, new energy efficient light bulbs, filters, and appliances could also help reduce your carbon footprint.In a word, less energy used means less greenhouse gas produced. With easy steps, you are on your way to reducing the size of the carbon footprint left behind.A.Cutting off power is the best way to ensure that unnecessary energy is not lost.B.For instance, the use of bottled water leaves a rather significant carbon footprint.C.What fossil fuels may lead to carbon footprints?D.However, wherever we go, we actually leave two sets of footprints.E.We often forget footprints sometimes consequently do harm to the environment.F.However, your carbon footprint consists of many activities that can be far less obvious.G.That refers to the level of greenhouse gases your lifestyle and activity produce and send out.Passage 2文体：说明文词数：273 限时：7分钟some thing that you’re doing doesn’t challenge you, then it doesn’t change you. We all need some normal stress in our lives, after all. 1So challenge the following limits：1. Figure out what you’re scared of and do it continuously.If you’re a salesman, and you’re scared of talking to people personally or over the phone, now, instead of being scared and thinking you’ll fail, spend at least five minutes a day to pick up the phone and make a call. 2 But don’t stop on the first try! Eventually, you can look a t fear in the eyes and say, “Go on, I’m not scared!”2. 3Make sure this hobby is not linked to your career；you have to relax and relieve your stress while performing this. Some examples might be cooking, sewing, painting and so on. Apart from helping you challenge yourself, taking a class for your hobby may also give you extra income.3.Set aside at least nine minutes a day for physical exercise.4 A simple 9-minute run around your neighborhood can do wonders for yourself. Exercise can not only help you maintain your regular weight, but also make you feel better about yourself.4.Travel and allow yourself to be interested in new people.Don’t just limit yourself to your fellow travelers—try to connect with the service staff. You never know what kind of people they’re going to be. Get out of your house or go online right now to book your class. 5A.You should do it continuously.B.Someone may hang up on you.C.You don’t need to go to the gym.D.Running in the gym may be a better choice.E.Start to travel now and learn to challenge yourself.F.Take a class for a hobby you want to develop.G.You can never see any improvement if you stick to your comfort zone.Passage 3文体：说明文词数：280 限时：8分钟A major source of teen stress is school exams, and test anxiety is not uncommon. When you recognize your teen is under stress, how can parents help your teen stay calm before an exam?Be involved. Parents need to be involved in the ir teen’s work. 1 What they look for is your presence—to talk, to cry, or simply to sit with them quietly. Communicate openly with your teen. Encourage your teen to express her worries and fears, but don’t let them focus on those fears. Help them get organized. 2 Together, you and your teen can work out a schedule in which she can study for what she knows will be on the test.Provide a calm environment. Help your teen set up a quiet place to study and protect his privacy. Give them a nutritious diet. It is importantfor your teen to eat a healthy, balanced diet during exam times to focus and do her best. 3 If this happens, encourage your teen to eat light meals or sandwiches. A healthy diet, rather than junk food, is best for reducing stress.4 Persuade your teenager to get some sleep and／or do something active when she needs a real break from studying. Making time for relaxation, fun, and exercise are all important in reducing stress. Help your teen balance her time so that she will feel comfortable taking time out from studying to spend time with friends or rest.Show a positive attitude. 5 Your panic, anxiety and blame contribute to your teen’s pressure. Make your teen feel accepted and valued for her efforts. Most importantly, reassure(安慰) your teen that things will be all right, no matter what the results are.A.Exam stress can make some teens lose their appetite.B.They will only make the situation worse.C.Encourage your teen to relax.D.The best thing is simply to listen.E.Help your teen think about what she has to study and plan accordingly.F.Your teen may also make negative comments about themselves.G.A parent’s attitude will dictate their teen’s emotions.Passage 4文体：说明文词数：252 限时：7分钟Doctors say anger can be an extremely damaging emotion, unless you learn how to deal with it. They warn that anger can lead to heart disease, stomach problems, headaches, emotional problems and possibly cancer.1 Some people express anger openly in a calm and reasonable way. Others burst with anger and scream and yell. But still other people keep their anger inside. They cannot or will not express it. This is called repressing anger.For years many doctors thought that repressing anger was more dangerous to a person’s health than expressing it. They said that when a person is angry, the brain releases some hormones(荷尔蒙). They speed the heart rate, raise blood pressure, or sugar into the blood, etc. 2 Some doctors say that both repressing and expressing anger can be dangerous. They believe that those who express anger violently may be more likely to develop heart disease, and they believe that those who keep anger inside may face a greater danger of high blood pressure.3 They say the first step is to admit that you are angry and to recognize the real cause of the anger, then decide if the cause is serious enough to get angry about. If it is, they say, “4 Wait until your anger has cooled down and you are able to express yourself calmly andreasonably.” Doctors say that a good way to deal with anger is to find humor in the situation that has, made you angry. 5A.They say that laughter is much healthier than anger.B.Expressing anger violently is more harmful than repressing it.C.Doctors say the solution is learning how to deal with anger.D.Anger may cause you a cancer.E.Do not express your anger while angry.F.Anger is a normal emotion that we all feel from time to time.G.In general the person feels excited and ready to act.答案及解析Passage 1【语篇导读】文章谈及碳足迹，提及碳足迹的分类，并结合生活中的实例提出环保措施。

carbon footprint英语作文

carbon footprint英语作文The carbon footprint is a measure of the amount of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, produced directly or indirectly by human activities. It is usually expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide emitted per year. The carbon footprint is a way to quantify the impact of our daily activities on the environment and to understand how our choices and behaviors contribute to climate change.There are many factors that contribute to our carbon footprint, including transportation, energy use, food consumption, and waste generation. For example, driving a car, using electricity from fossil fuels, eating meat, and throwing away plastic all contribute to our carbon footprint. By understanding and measuring these factors, we can make informed decisions to reduce our carbon footprint and minimize our impact on the environment.Reducing our carbon footprint is essential formitigating climate change and preserving the planet for future generations. There are many ways to reduce our carbon footprint, such as using public transportation,walking or biking instead of driving, using energy-efficient appliances, consuming less meat and dairy, and recycling and reducing waste. Additionally, supporting renewable energy sources and advocating for sustainable policies can also help to reduce our carbon footprint on a larger scale.It is important for individuals, businesses, and governments to work together to address the issue of carbon footprint and take collective action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By making conscious choices and promoting sustainable practices, we can all contribute to a healthier and more sustainable planet.碳足迹是衡量人类活动直接或间接产生的温室气体，特别是二氧化碳的数量的一种方法。

高考英语阅读理解外刊精读(02)讲义

Indian electioneering：Grainy season印度选举：谷物粮食季01文章脉络【1】莫迪总理宣布会继续为贫民提供每月5公斤免费粮【2】为贫民提供粮食补助是政府的法定责任【3】莫迪总理的这项计划始于2020年3月【4】莫迪政府的补充计划主要是为选举考量【5】莫迪此举在政治之外并不会有太大的影响【6】有人更倾向于用现金转移支付来帮助贫民02背景知识印度大米出口禁令：印度是世界头号大米出口国，大米是其出口创汇的优势农产品，为何突然自断贸易渠道？不寻常的行为背后，实则有着深刻的地缘冲突、极端气候和政治考量背景。

第一，全球地缘政治冲突加剧。

俄乌冲突升级导致全球粮食贸易通道受阻，需求和价格双升，尤其是黑海粮食出口协议的中断，进一步加剧了全球各国对粮食危机的恐慌。

第二，极端气候引发水稻主产国稻谷减产预期。

2022年，全球第四大大米出口国巴基斯坦发生严重洪涝灾害，稻谷减产31%。

今年以来，受厄尔尼诺现象影响，东南亚和南亚多国相继遭遇高温干旱侵袭，对水稻产量造成不利影响。

美国农业部（USDA）最新预测，2023/2024年度印度大米产量为1.34亿吨，比上年减产200万吨。

第三，印度亟需平抑国内粮食价格。

今年印度雨季推迟，水稻减产预期加剧，导致印度国内粮食短缺恐慌情绪蔓延。

印度政府数据显示，印度大米零售价格去年上涨11.5%，今年6月更是一个月内上涨3%。

为平抑国内粮食价格，印度颁布大米出口禁令，优先保障国内市场供应。

03原文反馈Indian electioneering：Grainy seasonNarendra Modi and the art of claiming credit词汇：Creditn.（借钱偿还的）信誉，信用/（从银行借的）借款；贷款/（大学，以及美国中小学的）学习单元；学分真题链接①During my second year at the city college, I was told that the education department was offeringa "free" course, called thinking chess, for three credits.在城市学院的第二年，有人告诉我，教育部门开设了一门“免费”课程，名为“思考国际象棋”，有三个学分。

The Guide to PAS 2050-2011

How to carbon footprint your products, identify hotspots and reduce emissions in yoursupply chainThe Guide to PAS 2050:2011The Guide toPAS2050:2011How to carbon footprint your products, identifyhotspots and reduceemissions in yoursupply chainAcknowledgementsThe development of this Guide was co-sponsored by:Defra (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs)DECC (Department of Energy and Climate Change)BIS (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills)Acknowledgement is given to ERM who authored this Guide. ERM has completed over 1,000 carbon footprints across more than 50 sectors and provides carbon footprinting and carbon reduction services to both UK and international clients. Acknowledgement is also given to the following organizations who assisted in its development:ADAS UK LimitedDefraFood and Drink FederationInstitute of Environmental Management and AssessmentCarbon TrustFirst published in the UK in 2011byBSI389 Chiswick High RoadLondon W4 4AL© British Standards Institution 2011All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part of thispublication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means –electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without prior permission in writing from the publisher.Whilst every care has been taken in developing and compiling this publication, BSI accepts no liability forany loss or damage caused, arising directly or indirectly in connection with reliance on its contents exceptto the extent that such liability may not be excluded in law.While every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, anyone claiming copyright should get intouch with the BSI at the above address.BSI has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websitesreferred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,accurate or appropriate.The right of ERM to be identified as the author of this Work have been asserted by the authors inaccordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.T ypeset in Futura by Helius – Printed in Great Britain by Berforts. British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-0-580-77432-4Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1What is PAS 2050? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Why should I use PAS 2050? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Why this Guide? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2The 2011 revision of PAS 2050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2Making product carbon footprinting work in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3The stepwise footprinting process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Step 1. Scoping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51.1. Describe the product to be assessed and the unit of analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .51.2. Draw a map of the product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61.3. Agree and record the system boundary of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71.4. Prioritize data collection activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Step 2. Data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Types of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132.1. Draw up a data collection plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142.2. Engaging suppliers to collect primary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142.3. Collecting and using secondary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162.4. Collecting data for ‘downstream’ activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182.5. Assessing and recording data quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Step 3. Footprint calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.1. General calculation process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213.2. Calculations for specific aspects of the footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30Step4. Interpreting footprint results and driving reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424.1. Understanding carbon footprint results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42ContentsContents4.2. How certain can I be about the footprint and hotspots? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434.3. Recording the footprint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444.4. How can I use footprinting to drive reductions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 Annex A. Further examples of functional units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Annex B. Setting functional units and boundaries for services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Annex C. Orange juice example: data prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Annex D. Primary data collection tips and templates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59 Annex E. Sampling approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Annex F. A data quality assessment example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66 Annex G. Biogenic carbon accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 Annex H. Worked CHP example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Annex I. Supplementary requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .741Introduction2Introductionclarification on only one, or a small number, of aspects of the calculation process. The concept of supplementary requirements is akin to ‘Product Category Rules’ (i.e. developed through ISO 140255)and ‘Product rules’ (GHG Protocol Product Standard) and may include either of these (if consistent with PAS 2050).This symbol is used in this Guide to denote where you might be able to usefully refer to supplementaryrequirement documents for further clarity or information.Before you begin to carry out your assessment, look to see if there are supplementary requirements that may help you assess the emissions associated with your product. Where they exist they should always be used.If there are no supplementary requirements for your sector, check to see whether other rules or guidance may be applicable.6)If not, you may even want to consider starting to develop supplementary requirements within your industry.For further discussion of supplementary requirements,see Annex I.The Guide to PAS 2050:20113Making product carbonfootprinting work in practiceProduct carbon footprinting should be used as a practical tool that is tailored to the needs of your organization.It can be used to identify the main sources of emissions for all types of goods and services, from oranges to nappies and from bank accounts to hospitality.Consideration of the goal/objectives of a carbon footprint study is of paramount importance, to ensure that it will deliver the information that you need. In assessing your own organization's needs, consider the following:•Your core business priorities.How could an in-depthunderstanding of the wider GHG impacts, risks and opportunities of goods and services support your strategy/business priorities? Are any products, supply chains or markets particular priorities? What are the expectations of your customers and investors?•Judicial selection of products.Identify the productsthat make most sense to assess and improve, e.g. the top-five best sellers or top-three new designs. Decide where you want to focus your attention, bearing in mind that you cannot do everything at once.•The intended audience for a study. This affectsthe degree of accuracy and resolution needed. A footprint analysis to be used to identify opportunities for reduction can be undertaken efficiently and at a high level initially, to be built on as needed. For external claims, gaining assurance is best practice,and a rigorous approach to data collection will need to be demonstrated.•Your timescale. How does this process fit in withyour product management cycle? Decide how much5)ISO 14025:2006 Environmental labels and declarations – T ype III environmental declarations – Principles and procedures.6)For example, see the PCR library at .tw/about/index.asp.Introduction 45ScopingStep IScoping is the most important step when undertakingany product carbon footprint study. It ensures that theright amount of effort is spent in getting the right datafrom the right places to achieve robust results in themost efficient manner possible.There are four main stages to scoping, and they arebest undertaken sequentially.Step I: Scoping 6‘downstream’ of your activities are not overlooked,such as recyclability at end-of-life, or potential to influence use phase emissions.For each stage on the process map:•provide a description of the activity to aid with datacollection•identify the geographic location of each distinct stepwhere possible•include all transport and storage steps between stages.An example for orange juice is shown in Figure 1.1.3. Agree and record the system boundary of the studyOnce the process map is complete, it can be used to help identify which parts of the overall system will, and will not, be included in the assessment.As an output from this scoping stage, you should clearly document and record the ‘system boundary’ in terms of:•a list of all included life cycle stages (e.g. rawmaterials, production, use, end-of-life)•a list of all included activities and processes within each life cycle stage•a list of all excluded activities and processes,and thesteps taken to determine their exclusion.Consider the following when setting system boundaries:•which GHG emissions and removals to include•cradle-to-gate (i.e. business-to-business) assessmentsversus cradle-to-grave (business-to-consumer)assessments•which processes and activities to include or exclude •time boundaries.In some cases, supplementary requirements maydictate the system boundary that should be used for a particular product system. Where these are compatible with PAS 2050, the system boundary set out in these documents should be used.The Guide to PAS 2050:20117Which GHG emissions and removals to include?According to PAS 2050, a carbon footprint must include all emissions of the 63 GHGs listed in the specification.These include carbon dioxide (CO 2), nitrous oxide (N 2O)and methane (CH 4), plus a wide range of halogenated hydrocarbons including CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs.Each of these types of GHG molecule is capable of storing and re-radiating a different amount of energy,and therefore makes a different contribution to global warming. The relative ‘strength’ of a GHG compared with carbon dioxide is known as its global warmingpotential (GWP), for example 25 for methane.T able 1 shows the global warming potentials and common sources of some of the most important GHGs covered under PAS 2050.Removals of carbon from the atmosphere (e.g. by plants and trees) must also be included in the assessment,except in the case of the biogenic carbon contained within food or feed products. This can be a tricky aspect of the footprint calculation process (e.g. for paper- and wood-based materials), and is a newStep I: Scoping8Figure 1: An example process map for orange juicePAS 2050 requirement. Further guidance is provided in Step 3.2, heading ‘Biogenic carbon accounting and carbon storage’, and Annex G of this Guide.A cradle-to-gate or cradle-to-grave assessment?PAS 2050 allows for two standard types of assessment (Figure 2), which are often used for different purposes:The Guide to PAS 2050:20119the carbon footprint of the product they supply. In this case, it makes sense to report emissions that occur only up to the point at which the product is transferred to the buyer. It also enables footprints to be incrementally calculated and reported across a supply chain.While useful in this context, cradle-to-gate assessments lack the completeness of a full cradle-to-graveassessment, and may miss a large proportion of the impact for certain products. For example, for energy-using products, the vast majority of the overall carbon footprint will result from the electricity used in the use phase. This impact would only be included in a cradle-to-grave assessment.Source: IPCC (2007), T able 2.14; see Clause 2.7) 100-year time horizon.Note: the GWP actually used in calculations should be the latest available from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and you should check this periodically.Table 1: Global warming potentials and common sources of some of the most important GHGs1.Cradle to gate – which takes into account all life cycle stages from raw material extraction up to the point at which it leaves the organization undertaking the assessment.2.Cradle to grave – which takes into account all life cycle stages from raw material extraction right up to disposal at end of life.Cradle-to-gate and cradle-to-grave assessmentsCradle-to-gate assessments are commonly used where a buyer has asked a supplier to provide information onStep I: Scoping10It is vital that at least 95 per cent of the total mass and at least 95 per cent of the total anticipated impact of the final product is being assessed. Double check this during data prioritization calculations (see Step 1.4).System boundaries for services Setting system boundaries for services, in particular, can be challenging. Some guidance on doing so is provided in Annex B.The Guide to PAS2050:2011 11Table 2: Examples of high- and low-intensity materials and processesStep I: Scoping12•Emission factors : values that convert activity dataquantities into GHG emissions – based on the ‘embodied’ emissions associated with producing materials/fuels/energy, operating transport carriers,treating wastes, etc. These are usually expressed in units of ‘kg CO 2e’ (e.g. kg CO 2e per kg of orange cultivation, per litre of diesel, per km of transport or per kg of waste to landfill), and are most often from secondary sources.Choosing between primary and secondary dataCollecting primary activity data for specific activities across the supply chain can be time consuming, and so often dictates the amount of resource needed for a footprinting study. But the use of primary data generally increases the accuracy of the carbon footprint calculated, as the numbers used in the calculation relate directly to the real-life production or provision of the product or service assessed.Secondary data are usually less accurate, as they will relate to processes only similar to the one that actually takes place, or an industry average for that process.The choice between primary and secondary data should be guided by the scoping/prioritization activitiesundertaken in Step 1, as well as the underlying PAS 2050principles of:•relevance – selection of appropriate data andmethods for the specific products•completeness – inclusion of all GHG emissions andremovals arising within the system boundary that provide a material contribution13Data collectionStep 2•consistency – applying assumptions, methods anddata in the same way throughout the assessment •accuracy – reducing bias and uncertainty as far as practical•transparency – where communicating externally,provide sufficient information.In accordance with the principles of ‘relevance’ and ‘accuracy’, primary data are generally preferred.Step 2: Data collection14Note that, while the general rule is that primary data are preferred, there are some exceptions to this; for example, the case of commodity goods (see the following box).A key first task in the data collection process is toconsider primary and secondary data needs and drawup a data collection plan.Some example data collection templates, showing both generic and tailored approaches, as well as some useful tips, are provided in Annex D.The data collection template can also be used to ask for information to assess the quality of data provided. This involves a few additional questions for each data point, which will help you to ascertain how much confidence you can have in the accuracy of the data and, consequently, the accuracy of the carbon footprint. SamplingIn some cases, a product will be produced at a large number of sites. Milk in the UK, for example, is typically supplied by a large number of small/medium-sized farms, each providing an identical product (note: as suppliers are known and constant, this is differentThe Guide to PAS2050:2011 15 from a commodity good as earlier described). In thiscase, data collection for each site could be prohibitivelytime consuming, and a sampling approach is required. Annex E provides some guidance on sampling options.As with all footprinting tasks, resources should beallocated in the most efficient manner, while giving consideration to the core PAS2050 principles earlier described.Table 3: An example data collection plan for orange juice (drinks producer collecting data)Step 2: Data collection16contained in technical reports and published studies.This category also includes cradle-to-gate carbon footprint values that your suppliers might give you in response to a data request.•Disaggregated data are most often found in lifecycle inventory (LCI) databases that list all the inputs and outputs for a given process. These detail the consumption of specific raw materials/energy carriers and individual emissions, as opposed to a summary of the total CO 2e emissions.Aggregated data/emission factor sourcesT able 4 provides a list of useful sources of easilyaccessible emission factors. These are a starting point,but are by no means a definitive list of available resources.If you are using aggregated secondary data/emission factors, be careful to check that they are fit forpurpose. For example, is the system boundary used compliant with PAS 2050 boundaries? Some useful things to check are outlined in the box on page 17.Table 4: Useful sources of emission factors – some examplesDisaggregated/inventory data sourcesA list of common life cycle inventory (LCI) databases can be found at: http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ lcainfohub/databaseList.vm.Some databases are free, whereas some charge a licence fee.•An example of a licensed database is the ecoinvent LCI database found at . This is a useful source of data for over 4,000 materials andprocesses.•Examples of free databases are the European Reference Life Cycle Database (ELCD) found athttp://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasetArea.vm, and US Life Cycle Inventory Database found atThe Guide to PAS2050:2011 17 /lci/database/default.asp, bothof which contain LCI datasets for selected materialsand processes.T ypically, when using LCI databases, the inventory dataare modelled in an LCA software programme, to provide emission factors (aggregated data) that can be used ina carbon footprint. However, if needed, the values for individual emissions listed in the LCI database can beused to estimate the global warming potential withoutthe use of LCA software. Tips for using LCI data in thisway are as follows:•Copying the LCI data into a spreadsheet (e.g.Microsoft Excel) might make it easier to view andinterrogate.Step 2: Data collection18retailed in London/England/Wales) can be defined within your functional unit.RetailFor the majority of products, emissions from retail operations will represent a very small part of theoverall carbon footprint. The main source of emissions will be energy use for both lighting and refrigeration.If primary data for energy use by a retail facility are not available, emissions from retail of products stored at ambient temperatures can reasonably be assumed to be comparable to those from a warehouse (see Step 3.2, heading ‘Storage emissions’, of this Guide).Refrigerated or frozen storage at retail may represent a significant source of emissions, and so should be considered in more detail. See further information on refrigeration in Step 3.2, heading ‘Refrigeration’, of this Guide.You will typically need to consider the volume of space occupied by a product, and how long it is typically stored for at the point of sale (e.g. slow-moving items must be stored for longer, and so incur greater emissions).UseA ‘use profile’ is a description of the typical way in which a product is consumed, or of the average user requirements. For example:•a use profile for product that requires cooking willrefer to the proportion of users that will typically bake, boil or microwave the product and the amount of time required in each case•a use profile for an electrical item will refer to atypical length of time the product is used for, or a typical setting (e.g. the proportion of washing machine cycles at 30/40/60 degrees).For some products, the choices made at this stage can make a significant contribution to the footprint, and introduce considerable variability, and so require careful consideration.•Identify emissions of key GHGs. As a minimum,emissions of fossil/biogenic carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide should be identified, which are the predominant GHGs in the majority of instances.However , other key GHGs, such as CFCs and HCFCs,might also be included in the inventory data.•The identified GHG emissions values can thenbe multiplied by their respective global warming potential, and the results summed to derive a ‘kg CO 2e’ emission factor that can be used in your product carbon footprint calculations.•Ideally, the quantity of all key GHGs will be identified.In practice, this can be a laborious task that might only involve very minor emissions. In this case, it should be recognized that the resulting emission factor might be an underestimate, and should be clearly labelled as such in the product carbon footprint calculations.2.4. Collecting data for ‘downstream’ activitiesDistributionIn many instances you will need to collect primary data for product distribution, if under your operational control.Distribution typically comprises transportation to a retail market and a period of storage in a distribution centre or warehouse. Specific data needs and emissions calculations for these activities are discussed in Step 3.2,headings ‘Refrigeration’ and ‘Storage emissions’, of this Guide.Whether this distribution step represents an average geography (e.g. products retailed in the UK, orEurope – taking a weighted average based on sales in different locations) or specific region (e.g. productsThe Guide to PAS2050:2011 19be assessed against the principles of PAS 2050 is presented in Annex F . Note that this example outlines only one of the ways in which you could undertake a semi-quantitative assessment to flag areas of uncertainty (and potential need for data improvement).The best-quality data should always be sought in an assessment, but is of particular importance where external communication is an ultimate goal of the study. In this case, a full data quality assessment,Step 2: Data collection20along with any accompanying assumptions or calculations, should be recorded with the product carbon footprint calculations.For internal assessments (e.g. to identify hotspots in the value chain), formal assessment/recording may not be needed, but you should ensure that differences in data quality are not unduly influencing the findings of your study (see Step 4 of this Guide for further discussionon this).Consider the examples for orange juice (Figure 3 and T able 5, and Figure 4 and T able 6), which show calculations for the first two life cycle stages.Activity data are often collected in many different formats and relating to different units (e.g. inputs and outputs for a tonne of raw material produced, or a year’s worth of production, or a hectare’s worth of production). An important next step is to balance the flows shown in21Footprint calculationsStep 3Step 3: Footprint calculations22HGV , heavy goods vehicle.aThe emissions from fertilizers and pesticides are dictated by their content of minerals or active ingredients (e.g. the proportion of fertilizer that is nitrogen or the proportion of pesticide that is anthraquinone) not the total weight.However, transport of the fertilizer or pesticide to use should be calculated based on the total weight.Figure 3: Mapping activity data – cultivation of oranges for the production of orange juiceTable 5: Example – 1hectare of orange cultivationThe Guide to PAS 2050:2011 23Table 6: Example – to produce 1tonne of concentrateFigure 4: Mapping activity data – processing of oranges for the production of orange juicethe process map so that all inputs and outputs reflect the provision of the functional unit/reference flow defined in Step 1. This can be either done within the process map itself, or in an Excel spreadsheet or other software tool.This can be the most difficult part of the calculation process. Golden rules are to:•always consider waste in the process•make calculations as transparent as possible, sothey can be traced backwards•record all assumptions and data concerns.Once the flows are balanced to reflect the functional unit, the calculation process is simple.Remember that some flows might be negative, where there are biogenic carbon removals (see Step 3.2,Step 3: Footprint calculations24heading ‘Biogenic carbon accounting and carbon storage’, and Annex H of this Guide).A simplified example for orange juice is shown inT able 7. Specific calculation aspects, such as transport,refrigerant or waste management are also discussed later in this section.The Guide to PAS2050:2011 25 Table 7: Footprint calculations for the production of a 1litre carton of orange juice (example data only)(Continued)(Continued)Table 7: Footprint calculations for the production of a 1litre carton of orange juice (example data only) (continued)Making simplifying assumptionsIt is often possible to use simplifications or estimations to streamline the carbon footprinting process. For example:•grouping all cleaning chemicals and using a generic ‘chemicals’ emission factor, estimating the quantities used•assigning a set of general assumptions for transport– e.g. 50km to waste treatment, 200km for inputs from the UK and 1,000km from central Europe.When making any simplifying assumptions it is important to make them conservative/worst case, and make sure that you record them and are able to change them if needed.In the calculation step of the footprint, it is a good idea to check and confirm that these simplified inputs or activities are not significant contributors to the footprint (e.g. >5 per cent of the footprint). If they are, you may need to go back and collect more specific information.As discussed in Step 2.5 of this Guide, the best quality (and specific) data should always be sought in anassessment, but is of particular importance whereexternal communication is an ultimate goal of the study.For both external and internal assessments, it is most important to ensure that differences in data quality are not unduly influencing the findings of your study (discussed further in Step 4 of this Guide).Co-product allocationSome processes in the life cycle of a product may yield more than one useful output (‘co-products’). For example, in the life cycle of orange juice above,the juicing of oranges yields not only orange juice but also a large volume of pulp (a low-value co-product that can be used as an animal feed) and a small amount of peel oil (a high-value essential oil that can be used as a fragrance in perfumes or household cleaners).In these cases, the input and output flows, or emissions,of the process (juicing) must be split, or ‘allocated’between the product being studied (the juice) and any co-products (the pulp and peel oil).aThis is the global warming potential (GWP) of N 2O gas – not an emission factor. The gas is released directly, and so does not need multiplying by an emission factor. It does, however need to be multiplied by its GWP of 298 to translate into CO 2equivalents (CO 2e).bLand-spreading – this is put to useful purpose, and so is a co-product, albeit with minimal value. A simple approach is to allocate this co-product zero emissions, as its relative value is very small (see Step 3.1, heading ‘Co-product allocation’, of this Guide).cThese values include removals and emissions of biogenic carbon within the packaging material. See Step 3.2,heading ‘Biogenic carbon accounting and carbon storage’, of this Guide.Table 7: Footprint calculations for the production of a 1litre carton of orange juice (example data only)(continued)。

少吃牛肉就能为环保出力

少吃牛肉就能为环保出力On a farm in coastal Maine, a barn is going up. Right now it's little more than a concrete slab and some wooden beams, but when it's finished, the barn will provide winter shelter for up to six cows and a few head of sheep. None of this would be remarkable if it weren't for the fact that the people building the barn are two of the most highly regarded organic-vegetable farmers in the country: Eliot Coleman wrote the bible of organic farming, The New Organic Grower, and Barbara Damrosch is the Washington Post's gardening columnist.缅因州的一个沿海的农场上，有个在建的牲口棚。

目前，（这个牲口棚）只不过是一块混凝土板和一些木头檩子。

不过等建好了，这个牲口棚则最多可收容6头牛和几头羊在里面过冬。

这一切似乎都不足为奇，不过当你知道建牲口棚的人是两位全国最德高望重的有机蔬菜种植专家的时候，恐怕你就不会这么想了。

此二人一位叫艾略特科尔曼，曾写过有机农业的著作《新有机作物种植者》；另一位叫芭芭拉达姆罗施，是华盛顿邮报的园艺专栏作家。

At a time when a growing number of environmental activists are calling for an end to eating meat, this veggie-centric power couple is beginning to raise it. "Why?" asks Coleman, tromping through the mud on his way toward a greenhouse bursting with December turnips. "Because I care about the fate of the planet."如今，越来越多的环保分子在呼吁人们不要再吃肉，而这两位以素食为中心的重量级人物却又在养牲口。

中考英语试题(原卷版)

中小学教学参考资料教学设计教育论文随堂检测2020年潍坊市初中学业水平考试英语试题注意事项：1.本试题满分90分，考试时间为90分钟；2.答卷前务必将试题密封线内及答题卡上面的项目填涂清楚。

所有答案都必须涂、写在答题卡相应位置，答在本试卷上一律无效。

一、阅读理解阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中选出最佳选项。

A①Amy: Bye, Lucy. I have to bounce!Lucy: What?Amy: I have to bounce. You know—I have to go. We say that a lot in San Francisco.②Lucy: That's cool! What other things do you and your friends say?Amy: Well, for example, we say someone is 'sketchy' if we think they aren't very nice.Lucy: Sketchy? All right I like it.③Amy: What about things you say here in Britain?Lucy: Well, if I say ‘He's tasty’, do you know what it means?Amy: Beats me!Lucy: It means he's good-looking.④Amy: Look, there's Dave. He's quite tasty, isn't he?Lucy: Well, he's a bit sketchy sometimes—but I like him!Dave: Hi! What are you two laughing about?Amy: I can't tell you now—I have to bounce!Dave: Huh?1. The two girls are mainly talking about ________.A. the boyB. the languageC. their friendsD. their hometowns2. The three characters are making a conversation in ________ according to the picture.A. a school yardB. a supermarketC. a libraryD. a cinema3. When they say "A girl is tasty" in Britain, it means she is ________.A. kindB. smartC. prettyD. happyBA neighbor called 911 at 11:09 a.m. after seeing smoke coming from a house in the 165 block of 54th Street Southeast.The man who lives in the home was able to get his older child and the family dog out of the house on fire. Just then Monroe police officers arrived. The father said his younger child was still on the upper level of the house but he didn't know where.Officers did a quick search of the house but couldn't find the girl. One of them closed the door to the master bedroom, where the fire started, controlling it and slowing its spread. Firefighters arrived and after searching the closet and narrow beds in another bedroom, one firefighter noticed the closed toy box at the foot of the bed."She wasn't making sounds," later the firefighter said of the girl, whose exact age he didn't know. "I opened it up and saw her. She was lying in the toy box just balled up."Firefighters got the girl outside, where she was examined by doctors and found to be fine. The fire was quickly put out. The police officer who managed to shut the master bedroom door was highly praised. And the girl's father was so thankful to firefighters.4 How did the police officers know a child was still missing?A. The neighbor called.B. The father told them.C. The family dog jumped wildly.D. The child was making much noise.5. Why did the officer try to shut the master bedroom door?A. To protect the toy box.B. To slow the fire's spreading.C. To clear the way for firefighters.D. To keep fire from entering the master bedroom.6. Where was the girl found finally?A. In a closet.B. Inside a toy box.C. Behind a door.D. Under a narrow bed.7. What can be the best title for the text?A. Calling 911B. A house on fireC. Saving a girl out of fireD. A thankful fatherCShameem was born in a small village in Pakistan. In her village, it was a tradition to keep girls inside their homes. They were not allowed to get an education.Fortunately, Shameem's uncle, a university teacher, wanted to give her a chance to see the world. He offered Shameem a chance to attend school. So she became the only girl student in herclass.However, Shameem struggled to complete her schooling. To get permission for college, she went on three-day- hunger strike(抗议). After graduating from college, Shameem got a position in non-profit organization(非营利性组织)working to help women in rural(农村的)areas.There, she saw a Pakistan that she didn't know. Until then, she thought she had a difficult life. But there, she saw what women in other parts of Pakistan were experiencing. Some women had 11 children, but nothing to feed them. They would walk three hours every day to get water.Shameem found that the position was more than just a job for her. She discovered her power. By setting an example, her experience could encourage more people to understand the importance of education and send their daughters to school.Now, Shameem teaches in a rural school in her hometown. "The first day I walked into the school," she said, "I saw all these little Shameems staring at me with dreams in their eyes, the same dream of freedom which I had in my childhood."Today, there is not a single girl in her village who doesn't go to school.8 Who played an important role in sending Shameem to school?A. Her uncle.B. Her parents.C. A workmate.D. A university student.9. Why did Shameem work for a non-profit organization?A. To make much money.B. To finish her education.C. To discover her power as an example.D. To help poor women in the countryside.10. What's the main idea of Paragraph 4?A. Shameem walked three hours to get water.B. Shameem used to know her homeland well.C Women and children were short of food. D. Women's situation was more awful than expected.11. What's the influence of Shameem's effort?A. Girls have the same dream.B. No girl is allowed to attend school.C. All girls in the school are named Shameem.D. The idea of girls' education in her village has changed.D根据短文内容，从下列选项中选出能填人文中空白处的最佳选项，选项中有一项为多余选项。

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Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment 139 (2010) 66–73Contents lists available at ScienceDirectAgriculture,Ecosystems andEnvironmentj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /a g eeCarbon footprints of Indian food itemsH.Pathak ∗,N.Jain,A.Bhatia,J.Patel,P.K.AggarwalDivision of Environmental Sciences,Indian Agricultural Research Institute,New Delhi 110012,Indiaa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 31March 2010Received in revised form 1July 2010Accepted 1July 2010Available online 1 August 2010Keywords:Food consumption Greenhouse gasGreenhouse gas intensity MitigationNon-vegetarian meal Vegetarian meala b s t r a c tCarbon emission occurs during various stages of life cycle of food products.Greenhouse gases (GHG)emission from 24Indian food items showed that animal food products (meat and milk)and rice cultivation mostly contributed to methane (CH 4)emission,while food products from crops contributed to emission of nitrous oxide (N 2O).Emission of CO 2occurred during farm operations,production of farm inputs,transport,processing and preparation of food.The GHG emission during the life cycle of cooked rice was 2.8times the GHG emission during the life cycle of chapatti,a product of wheat ﬂour.Mutton emitted 11.9times as much GHG as milk,12.1times ﬁsh,12.9times rice and 36.5times chapatti.As Indians mostly consume fresh foods produced locally,87%emission came from food production followed by preparation (10%),processing (2%)and transportation (1%).For a balanced diet (vegetarian)an adult Indian man consumed 1165g food and emitted 723.7g CO 2eq.GHG d −1.A non-vegetarian meal with mutton emitted GHG 1.8times of a vegetarian meal,1.5times of a non-vegetarian meal with chicken and an ovo-vegetarian meal and 1.4times a lacto-vegetarian meal.Change in food habit thus could offer a possibility for GHG mitigation.© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionThe food consumption in relation to environmental impact has received political and social attention in recent years.The growth in food consumption causes increasing pressure on the environment.Research into the environmental effects of food consumption usu-ally focuses on energy use and the production of waste and rarely has been evaluated for greenhouse gases (GHG)emission.From the food consumption,carbon dioxide (CO 2)is the most important GHG followed by methane (CH 4)and nitrous oxide (N 2O)(Kramer et al.,1999).Fuel combustion activities are the main sources of CO 2emis-sion,whereas animal husbandry and rice cultivation are the main sources of CH 4emission,and the emission of N 2O is mainly from turnover of nitrogen in soil,application of N fertilizer and industry.Carbon footprint is the total set of GHGs emission caused by a product.It is often expressed in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent of all GHGs emitted.A product’s carbon footprint can be measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment.Once the size of a carbon footprint is known,a strategy can be devised to reduce it by technological developments,better process and product man-agement and alternate consumption strategies.Emission of GHG occurs in various stages of the life cycle i.e.,production,transport,processing and preparation of food products.Food chains around the world are responsible for a large share of total emission of GHGs.∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+911125842986.E-mail address:hpathak.iari@ (H.Pathak).Steinfeld et al.(2006)reported that 18%of global GHGs emission could be attributed to animal products alone.For the European Union,about 29%of GHG emissions are related to food consump-tion (EIPRO,2006).Agriculture contributes about 13.5%of global emission (IPCC,2007).In India,this sector contributes 18%of the total GHG emission (INCCA,2010).The emissions from agriculture are primarily due to methane emission from enteric fermentation in ruminants (63%)and rice ﬁelds (21%),nitrous oxide from appli-cation of N through manure and fertilizer to agricultural soil (13%)and manure management and burning of crop residue (2.7%).The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)in its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4)pointed out that lifestyle changes and behaviour patterns can contribute to climate change mitigation across all sectors.In this context it is argued that reducing animal protein consumption can bring down GHG emission.Worldwide animal protein is being consumed at an increasing rate.Earlier this trend was limited to the developed world.But with rapid increase in purchasing power in recent decades in developing countries,ani-mal protein consumption has gone up substantially.This trend will not only cause a major setback to global food security but also add to mounting emission of GHG.The objectives of this article were to calculate carbon foot-print of Indian food consumption,analyze the differences in GHG emission from vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods and estimate GHG emission at current and projected levels of food consump-tion in India.This will enable individuals to calculate carbon emission from the food they consume and develop safer options.Furthermore,the article indicates how these insights may be0167-8809/$–see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.agee.2010.07.002H.Pathak et al./Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment139 (2010) 66–7367Table1Ingredients for one serving-portion of various food items commonly consumed in Indian households.Food item No./quantity Ingredient(fresh weight,g)Water for preparation(g)Product fresh weight(g)Product dry weight(g)Main Oil Vegetable Spice/sugarChapatti a41004014090Bread a260208054Paratha a2100550560220144Burger a1751550525170131Rice(ordinary)1plate1004514588Rice(basmati)1plate1004014088Dosa a150555011053Idli a125255022Pulse1cup305510014037Sambar a1cup30515510015551Potato1cup120552515526Cauliﬂower1cup1005511017Brinjal1cup1005511013Poultry meat1plate100101012039Mutton1plate100201013039Fish2pieces10010511533Egg1505025Omlette150335625Milk1glass250525533Curd a1cup10010010Lassi a1cup5015501157Butter a1spoon10108Apple110010015Banana110010010Source:updated from Khanna et al.(1997).a Main ingredients of these food items are wheat,rice,pulse and milk,respectively.translated into GHG mitigation options with regard to food con-sumption.2.Materials and methodsmon food items in India and their ingredientsIndia,being diverse in climate and culture,has wide diversity in consumption of food.For example,rice is preferred as a staple food in the eastern and southern regions whereas wheat is the staple food in the northern region.However,because of more urbaniza-tion and increasing income,food habits are changing and today’s cosmopolitan Indians consume diverse food items.For this research the GHG emission in the various stages of the life cycle of24most common Indian food products was included.Table1shows the ingredients used to prepare these products.Requirement of pri-mary and secondary ingredients for one serving-portion of various food items was calculated based on Khanna et al.(1997).2.2.Emission of GHG during the life cycle of various food itemsBasically four stages of life cycle of food products i.e.,produc-tion,processing,transportation and preparation were considered in this study.The means of purchasing and storing by individual households were not considered.Similarly losses occurring during storage and handling during production were not accounted for. Food products from animal determined the CH4emission,while food products from crop determined the emission of CH4(from rice cultivation)and N2O(from all crops).Emission of CO2occurred during farm operations,production of farm inputs,transport,pro-cessing and preparation of food.2.2.1.Emission of GHG during production of the foodData used to calculate CH4and N2O emission factors of the main ingredients of the food products are given in Table2.Methane emis-sion for rice production(M rice,kg kg−1)was calculated using the following equation.M rice=E riceP ricewhere E rice is CH4emission(3.64Mt)from44.25Mha of Indian riceﬁelds(NATCOM,2004)and P rice is production of rice(93.4Mt) (MoA,2006a).Emission of GHGs(except methane from rice)from crop pro-duction was calculated from the data generated through a series of ﬁeld experiments conducted at Indian Agricultural Research Insti-tute,New Delhi to quantify the GHG emission related to production of various crops(Pathak et al.,2002,2003,2005;Majumdar et al., 2002;Bhatia et al.,2004;Jain et al.,unpublished).Table2Emission of greenhouse gases due to production of various food products from crop and animal.Crop/animal product GHG emission(g kg−1)CH4N2O CO2GWP(CO2eq.) Wheat0.00.345.0119.5Rice43.00.275.01221.3 Rice,basmati53.70.382.51515.4Pulse0.00.883.3306.8 Potato0.00.110.024.9Cauliﬂower0.00.113.328.2Brinjal0.00.112.531.1 Oilseed0.0 1.350.0422.5 Poultry meat0.0 2.750.0846.5 Mutton a482.50.00.012,062.7Egg0.0 2.0 1.0588.4Milk a29.20.00.0729.2 Banana0.00.210.071.6Apple0.0 1.041.7331.4Spice0.0 2.5100.0845.0Fish25.00.318.8718.3 Source:calculated from Bhatia et al.(2004),NATCOM(2004),Chhabra et al.(2009), Pathak et al.(2009b)and Jain et al.(unpublished).a Emission of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide for milk and mutton produc-tion was not considered as buffalo,cattle and goat in India are mostly fed with by-products of crops.68H.Pathak et al./Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment139 (2010) 66–73 Cattle and buffalo are the main milk-producing animals inthe country constituting61%of the total livestock population(NATCOM,2004).Besides poultry meat,mutton is the most com-mon source of animal meat consumed in India.In the present study,therefore,milk production from cattle and buffalo and meat pro-duction from poultry and goat were considered.The data on GHGemission from livestock were obtained from Chhabra et al.(2009),who compiled data from various sources(ALGAS,1998;NATCOM,2004;Swamy et al.,2004;Singhal et al.,2005)to estimate CH4emis-sion from different categories of ruminants.Emission of CH4fromruminants was calculated by dividing total emission of methanefrom the ruminants with their respective population(17th Live-stock Census,MoA,2006b)and in all the cases weighted averagevalues were used for analysis.Emission of CH4from milk production(M milk,kg L−1)was cal-culated using the following equation.M milk=E milk P milkwhere E milk is average CH4emission(kg d−1)from lactating cross-bred,non-descript cow and lactating buffalo,respectively;and P milk(L d−1)is average milk production of lactating animals(MoA, 2006b).Average CH4emission(E milk)from lactating bovines (crossbred cows,non-descript cows and buffaloes)was calculated by dividing total emission of methane from lactating bovines with total population of lactating bovine(Chhabra et al.,2009).The average milk produced by crossbred cows,non-descriptive cows and buffalos in India are6.5,1.9and4.2L d−1,respectively(MoA, 2006b).These quantities are much less than the milk produced by cattle in the developed countries mainly because of poor quality of feed available(IPCC,2007).Emission of CH4from mutton production(M mutton,kg kg−1) was calculated using the following equation.M mutton=E muttonW mutton×0.50where E mutton is CH4emission(kg year−1goat−1),W mutton (kg year−1)is the body weight of goat at the time of slaughter, and0.50is the fraction of mutton to total body weight.Average CH4emission(E mutton)from goat was calculated by dividing total emission of methane from goat per year(Chhabra et al.,2009)with total population of goat(17th Livestock Census,MoA,2006a,b). Average age for slaughtering goat was taken as12months and aver-age body weight of the animal at the time of slaughter was taken as15kg.Emission of N2O and CO2for milk and mutton production was not considered as buffalo,cattle and goat in India are mostly fed with by-products of crops such as wheat straw,rice straw and oilseed cake.Emission of N2O and CO2from production of these by-products of crops have been considered for the main products i.e.,wheat,rice and oilseed.Emission of N2O from poultry meat production(N poultry, kg kg−1)was calculated using the following equation.N poultry=F poultry×N feedW polutry×0.55where F poultry is feed grain required(kg year−1bird−1)by broil-ers,N feed is N2O emission from feed grain(maize and sorghum grain)production(kg kg−1),W poultry is the body weight of a bird (kg)and0.55is the fraction of poultry meat to total body weight.It was assumed that the bird is slaughtered at7weeks age and aver-age weight of the bird is1.8kg.Emission of N2O from maize and sorghum was calculated by dividing N2O emission per hectare of cropped land by grain yield(Jain et al.,unpublished).Emission of nitrous oxide from egg production(N egg,kg kg−1) was calculated using the following equation.N egg=F poultry×N feedW eggwhere F poultry is feed grain required(kg year−1bird−1)by layers, N feed is N2O emission from feed grain(maize and sorghum grain) production(kg kg−1),W egg is the weight of egg(kg)laid by a bird in a year.The W egg was calculated by multiplying No.of eggs laid by a bird in a year with weight of an egg(50g).2.2.2.Emission of GHG during transportation,processing and preparation of foodEmission of CO2(Table2)for various farm operations(tillage, sowing,irrigation,harvesting and transport to farm)and produc-tion of farm inputs(fertilizer and pesticides)were based on Pathak and Wassmann(2007)and Pathak et al.(2009b).Another important process which emits CO2during the life cycles of food production is transport between farm and industry and between industry and consumer.Processing and preparation also emitted CO2and were related to the use of energy.In India,most of the staple food items are consumed locally and main transport occur from rural areas to cities.A distance of200km was taken as the average trans-portation distance through road with average diesel consumption of15km L−1.Contrary to the developed countries,most of the common Indian foods are not processed and prepared directly for consumption.Total emission of CO2was calculated from the amount of diesel used for transport and processing,and liquid petroleum gas(LPG)for preparation of food.Each liter of diesel consumed would emit2.6kg CO2(Pathak et al.,2009a)whereas 1kg LPG used would emit2.95kg CO2(Thomas et al.,2000).The rate of burning LPG for conventional domestic LPG stove was taken as0.13kg h−1(Pantangi et al.,2007).2.3.Emission of GHGs for a balanced diet and common Indian mealsEmission of GHG for balanced diet for adult man and woman at moderate level of work was calculated based on their respec-tive diet requirements(Khanna et al.,1997)and associated GHG emission for production,processing,transport and preparation of respective food items.A comparison of GHG emission was also made forﬁve common diets i.e.,vegetarian,lacto-vegetarian (vegetarian with milk),ovo-vegetarian(non-vegetarian with egg), non-vegetarian with poultry meat and non-vegetarian with mut-ton.2.4.GHG emission intensity of the food itemsThe emission intensity for caloriﬁc value of food was calculated using the following equation.GWP Cal=GWP foodCal foodwhere GWP Cal is the global warming potential(GWP)per calo-rie food intake(g CO2eq.cal−1),GWP food is GWP of food items (g CO2eq.)and Cal food is the caloriﬁc value of food items(cal).The GHG intensity for price was calculated using the following equation.GWP Rs=GWP foodRs foodwhere GWP Rs is GWP per Rs.food price,GWP food is GWP of food items(g CO2eq.kg−1)and Rs food is price of food items(Rs.kg−1). Price of food items was obtained from their current market prices. Some food items such as egg are sold in numbers rather thanH.Pathak et al./Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment 139 (2010) 66–7369Table 3Emission of greenhouse gases in various stages of life cycle of food items.FoodGHG emission (g kg −1fresh product)GWP (g CO 2eq.kg −1fresh wt.)GWP (g CO 2eq.kg −1dry wt.)Production Processing Transport Preparation CH 4N 2O CO 2CO 2CO 2CO 2Chapatti 0.00.232.10.0 5.2160.0250.6389.8Bread 0.00.232.1100.07.864.0257.2381.0Paratha 0.00.121.70.07.8192.0261.7399.8Burger0.00.121.6100.07.832.0204.3266.2Rice (ordinary)21.50.137.50.0 5.296.0711.91617.9Rice (basmati)26.90.241.30.0 5.296.0858.91952.0Dosa 19.50.134.80.07.8160.0729.31519.3Idli 21.50.137.50.07.864.0682.51551.0Pulse 0.00.218.60.07.8128.0207.9790.9Sambar 0.00.217.10.0 5.2128.0199.3610.7Potato0.00.18.50.010.496.0132.0787.0Cauliﬂower 0.00.112.90.010.496.0138.4922.7Brinjal0.00.112.10.010.496.0141.01175.3Poultry meat 0.0 2.139.20.015.6128.0801.12704.9Mutton 357.40.00.80.015.6192.09149.332,081.9Fish 20.00.215.80.015.6160.0756.52865.7Egg0.0 2.0 1.00.015.664.0668.01335.9Omlette 0.0 1.8 1.30.015.664.0608.71383.5Milk 28.60.00.50.015.632.0766.85898.1Curd 29.20.00.00.015.60.0744.87448.3Lassi 12.70.0 1.50.015.60.0345.36109.7Butter 29.20.00.0250.018.20.0997.41187.4Apple 0.0 1.041.70.026.00.0357.42382.6Banana0.00.210.00.026.00.097.6975.9weight.To maintain the uniformity of the units for quantifying GHG intensity,no.of eggs were converted into weight of eggs (1egg =50g).Emissions of GHG due to food consumption in India at base year (2004–2005)and projected demand (2011–2012and 2020–2021)were also calculated taking into account the projected demand of various food products (Joshi et al.,2009)and associated GHG emission.3.Results and discussion3.1.Emission of GHG due to production of the food itemsProduction of food products varied considerably in GHG emis-sion (Table 2).For example,emission of GHG from production of ordinary rice was about 10.2and 43.3times higher than production of wheat and vegetables,respectively.Forthe production of bas-mati rice,the emission was 1.2times higher than that of ordinary rice.Higher emission in rice was because of CH 4emission under anaerobic soil condition whereas wheat,vegetables and other crops are grown in aerobic soil conditions and there is no CH 4emission.Sonesson et al.(2009)reported total emission of GHG for milled rice to be 6times higher than the wheat ﬂour.In general,production of fruits and vegetables are associated with fairly low emissions.Potato and other root vegetables have high productivity,resulting in low emission of GHG per unit food product.Production of food (meat and milk)from animal emitted larger amount of GHG compared to food from crops because of emission of methane by ruminants (Table 2).The nature of GHG also var-ied for different food items.The food products from animal such as mutton,poultry meat,dairy products and ﬁsh dominated the CH 4emission.On the other hand,the food products from crop con-tributed to N 2O emission except rice,which contributed to CH 4as well as N 2O emission.Application of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in agriculture was responsible for a major part of the N 2O emission.3.2.Emission of GHG during the life cycle of the food itemsTable 3presents data on GWP during the life cycle of various food items on fresh and dry weight basis.The GWP of food items was larger on dry weight basis than that with fresh weight basis.However,as the foods are generally consumed fresh,the resultsFig.1.Relative contribution of (a)various greenhouse gases and (b)various stages of life cycle of Indian food items towards global warming.70H.Pathak et al./Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment139 (2010) 66–73Table4Balanced diet requirement for adult man and woman per day and associated greenhouse gas emission at moderate level of work.Food Man WomanDiet requirement(g)a GWP(g CO2eq.)Diet requirement(g)a GWP(g CO2eq.)Veg.Non-veg.Veg.Non-veg.Veg.Non-veg.Veg.Non-veg.Wheat22522578.978.917517561.461.4 Pulse806523.318.9705520.416.0 Rice250250355.9355.9175175249.2249.2 Green vegetable(cauliﬂower)12512519.019.012512519.019.0 Other vegetables(brinjal)757511.611.6757511.611.6 Roots and tubers(potato)10010017.117.1757512.812.8 Milk200100156.478.2200100156.478.2 Apple303010.710.7303010.710.7 Sugar404033.833.8303025.425.4Oil404016.916.9404016.916.9 Egg–30–20.0–30–20.0 Mutton–30–370.5–30–370.5Total11651110723.71031.7995940583.8891.8a Fresh weight,updated from Khanna et al.(1997)and Gopalan et al.(1978).have been discussed on fresh weight basis only.The food products differed considerably in terms of GWP.Life cycle of rice(ordinary and basmati)emitted2.8–3.4times GHG than chapatti(Table3). Emission of CH4during the cultivation of puddled transplanted rice was responsible for the large difference in the GHG emission between rice and chapatti.Such differences also occurred in other food categories.In terms of GWP,mutton contributed11.9times that of milk,12.1times that ofﬁsh,12.9times that of rice and36.5 times that of chapatti during their respective life cycles(Table3). On an average,CH4contributed71%of the GWP for food consump-tion whereas CO2and N2O contributed16%and13%,respectively (Fig.1a).As Indians mostly consume fresh foods produced locally,87%of the emission came from food production followed by preparation (10%),processing(2%)and transportation(1%)of food(Fig.1b).In Europe and America,where processed foods are more common,the share of transportation and processing to GWP is more(Sonesson et al.,2005).Worldwide transportation contributes14%of GHG emission for meat production and in the United Kingdom contribu-tion of transportation was8%for consumption-oriented purposes (Garnet,2007).In Sweden transportation contributed16%and31% of the total GHG emission for carrots and potatoes,respectively (Kanyama,1998).3.3.Carbon footprint of balanced dietA balanced diet is one which contains different foods in quan-tities and proportion that the need for calories,minerals,vitamins, carbohydrate,fat and other nutrients is met to withstand short duration of leanness(Gopalan et al.,1978).Taking into account the foods which commonly form part of the Indian diets,sug-gested balance diets for man and women are given in Table4. For a balanced diet(vegetarian),an adult Indian male consumed 1165g food d−1and emitted723.7g CO2eq.GHG d−1(Table4).For a vegetarian adult female the emission was20%lower.Emission of GHG was40%more for a non-vegetarian meal.For the devel-oped countries per capita GWP for food consumption is about 1200–1500g CO2eq.i.e.,2times that of Indian emission(Sonesson et al.,2009).In a common lacto-vegetarian meal rice contributed the largest amount of GHG(49%)followed by milk(22%)(Fig.2a).In a non-vegetarian meal contribution of mutton was the largest(35%) towards GHG emission,closely followed by rice(34%)(Fig.2b). Kramer et al.(1999)showed that meat and dairy products account for28%and23%of GHG emission,respectively in Dutch food.3.4.Carbon footprint of common Indian mealsComparison of GHG emission fromﬁve common meals showed that a non-vegetarian meal with mutton emitted highest amount of GHG,1.8times than the vegetarian meal,1.5times of a non-vegetarian meal with chicken and an ovo-vegetarian meal and1.4 times a lacto-vegetarian meal(Fig.3).Mutton consumption causes more GHG emission compared to consumption of foodgrain and poultry products.A study from Spain and Sweden also showed that vegetarian meals were associated with less environmental impact than meals with animal protein(Sonesson et al.,2009).These data support in favour of vegetarians for reducing GHG emission.This could,however,be true if the animal protein is substituted by crop or poultry products.Substitution by milk will be less effec-tive as it would increase GHG emission compared to vegetarian meal(without milk).But in India and in most other countries,milk is an integral part of vegetarian diet.When milk was included in the vegetarian meal(lacto-vegetarian),GHG emission increased by 1.3times.Production of milk emitted considerable amount of GHG (Table2).Therefore,for a balanced diet substitution of milk in veg-etarian meal by legumes,or soy milk for protein could be an option for GHG emission mitigation.However,as milk also supplies miner-als and vitamins,while replacing milk with other sources of protein, supply of these nutrient elements need to be considered.3.5.GHG intensity and annual GWP of food consumption in IndiaThe GWP per calorie food intake was highest for mutton(5301g CO2eq.cal−1)followed by egg and milk and the lowest was for wheat(Table5).The GHG intensity for price was also highest for mutton(56g CO2eq.Rs.−1)followed by milk(36g CO2eq.Rs.−1) and wheat(19g CO2eq.Rs.−1)(Table5).On a national level,food consumption in India during 2004–2005was493.2Mt,which contributed397.2Mt CO2eq.In the years2010–2011and2020–2021the food demand would increase to593.1and600.1Mt and the GWP would be495.7and 642.0Mt CO2eq.,respectively(Table6).3.6.Mitigation of GHG emission from food consumptionThe results of the GHG emission analysis showed variations in GHG emission from food within food products offering possibilities to reduce the GHG emission from food consumption.An example could be a shift from animal food products to crop food products. Within crop foods,products based on rice(rice,dosa and idli)wouldH.Pathak et al./Agriculture,Ecosystems and Environment139 (2010) 66–7371Fig.2.Relative contribution of various food items to greenhouse gas emission in balanced vegetarian and non-vegetariandiets.Fig.3.Global warming potential of various vegetarian and non-vegetarian meals in India.emit more GHG compared to wheat-based products(chapatti and bread).Therefore,to mitigate GHG emission within crop-based food products either consumption of rice is to be reduced or rice should be grown in a different way.Aerobic rice or direct-seeded rice is a good example of growing rice differently.Studies have shown that the GWP of direct-seeded rice was only25%of that of the conventional puddled transplanted rice(Pathak et al.,unpub-lished).For the substitution of food products,however,it is very impor-tant to pay attention to the nutritive values of foods and getting a balanced diet.Meat consumption could be substituted by other pro-tein,such as pulse and vegetables.However,substitution of meat by dairy products(milk)is less effective than substitution by the vegetables and pulses.In addition,other behavioural options are conceivable(e.g.substitution of tinned,bottled,or frozen vegeta-bles for fresh vegetables)for mitigation of GHG emission.However, technical options in the life cycle of food products to reduce the GHG emissions of food products are also very important but lie outside the scope of this article.Worldwide a considerable research was carried out on the GHG emission from household food consumption.Coley et al.(1998)cal-culated energy intensities in the Netherlands and Biesiot and Moll (1995)estimated the distribution of the energy use of typical diet in the United Kingdom and observed a potential for fossil-fuel-related GHG reduction potential.Kramer et al.(1999)analyzed differences in GHG intensities within food products and showed possibilities for GHG reduction in Dutch households by changing their expendi-ture on food products.Higher emission from animal products has also been reported from New Zealand and Europe.For example, Sonesson et al.(2009)reported the emission of GHG from milk to be3.1–3.8kg CO2eq.kg−1on70%water-content basis.Wallén et al. (2004)compiled data from a variety of sources to show the emis-Table5Emission of greenhouse gases per calorie food consumption and their emission intensity.Food GWP of food(gCO2eq.kg−1)Food value(cal kg−1)aEmission intensity for foodvalue(g CO2eq.cal−1)Price of rawfood(Rs.kg−1)bEmission intensity forprice(g CO2eq.Rs.−1)Wheat35134100.101819 Rice142433300.432557 Pulse97032500.308012 Vegetable1713000.57257 Milk782680 1.152531 Apple3575600.64804 Sugar84540000.214021 Oil42390000.05706 Mutton12,3522000 6.1824051 Egg66817500.387010a Source:Khanna et al.(1997).b Current(March,2010)price of the commodities at Delhi market.。