Legislation by Hypothesis： The Case of Task-Based Instruction
PPP教学法和TBLT任务型教学法的比较与对比探究
PPP教学法和 TBLT任务型教学法的比较与对比探究1.引言在当今语言学习与教学领域，任务型教学(TBLT)已经成为讨论最广泛的方法之一，被该领域众多学者认为是交流语言教学(CLT)方法的有力版本(Ellis，2003；Nunan，2004)。
然而，虽然TBLT是外语教学的推荐方法，它并没有充分引入到课堂实践中。
演示-实践-产出(PPP)在语言教学方面有较长的历史，但最近的研究相对较少。
虽然PPP在激励机制方面似乎不如TBLT，但教师往往不确定TBLT的效果。
本文将试图比较和对比TBLT和PPP两种教学法。
2.PPP与TBLT从20世纪60年代开始，PPP作为一种有效的教学法被推荐给语言教师。
该领域的许多学者，如Byrne（1986）探索了PPP的实施步骤。
首先，老师提出新的语言项目；然后学习者重复练习；最后学生自己产出语言表达。
Byrne还指出，顺序不必严格遵循，根据学生的水平、需求和教学材料，也可以从产出到演示再到实践。
Richards和Rodgers对TBLT的定义如下：“基于任务作为语言教学规划和教学核心单元的方法（Richards&Rodgers，2001，p.223）”。
它被视为交际语言教学的新发展，因为它建立在许多原则之上，比如，TBLT涉及真正交流的活动，对语言学习至关重要。
任务的目标通常与现实世界中语言使用的特定领域有关，即学术、专业、社会、商业、技能。
更具体地说，一些任务是为了发展参与学术学习所需的技能。
一些任务试图帮助学习者用目标语言进行社会交流。
除了上述列出之外，某些任务的目标是帮助学习者能够阅读目标文化的文献。
TBLT中的输入数据是学习者在任务开始时所面对的初始文本（口语或书面文本）、指令、图表、地图、图片。
难度是根据文本类型和文本结构进行分级的。
活动或程序是学习者必须完成的实际任务。
重要方面包括信息的分发，如群体中有多少成员能够获得关键知识；信息交换是任务的核心；是关注机构互动或社会互动的任务。
关联交易及利润操纵的英文文献就(带中文译文)
THE PROFIT AND ITS MANIPULATIONMasca EmaUniversitatea “Petru Maior”, Tg. Mures, bld. 1 Decembrie 1918, nr. 13/10, 0265266237, E-mail:*******************In the light of recent corporate scandals, accounting today as an objective way of presenting economic reality is suffering from a real crisis of confidence. Central to the Anglo-Saxon system of corporate governance, it has been pushed into the public spotlight, where its impartiality and objectivity is being questioned.Keywords: profit, manipulation, managementThe Positive Accounting Theory and profit manipulationEven though most of the scandals have taken place in the United States, the crisis of confidence has had an impact far beyond U.S. borders, as the Anglo-Saxon system of governance is spreading throughout continental Europe and particularly in France.In order to contain the crisis, the United States and France are committed to institutional and legal reform. Moreover, those identified as having perpetrated such manipulation, essentially auditors and financial directors, have been legally sanctioned. We should nonetheless question whether these legal and legislative measures will be sufficient to restore long-term confidence in the system. Bernard Collase is as king himself if shouldn’t the social dimension of the issue be taken into account? Isn’t it necessary first to understand the reasons behind profit manipulation and how it functions before changing legislation?Tenants of Positive Accounting Theory have represented the mainstream of accounting research since the early 80s. They see profit manipulation, which they euphemistically call “earnings management”, from an exclusively economic standpoint.How and why do management controllers take part in profit manipulation?That shareholder pressure leads management controllers to manipulate their firm’s profits. Going beyond individual responsibility, the organization imposed on a company by its shareholders with the aim of respecting criteria of Anglo-Saxon corporate governance is itself the cause of accounting manipulation at all levels.First, we will define the notion of “earnings management”, present a range of practices, and assess the role of management controllers in this phenomenon. We will observe that management controllers implement different methods for manipulating profit.Skill in profit manipulation enables management controllers to gain legitimacy in the eyes of managers working in a cultural context that is traditionally difficult for them. They soon become indispensable strategic allies playing the role of arbiter between the markets’ short-sightedness and the imperatives of operational management.Schipper proposes a representative academic definition of profit manipulation that she refers to as “earnings management”, similarly to the vast majority of literature on this subject. She defines profit manipulation as: “a purposeful intervention in the external financial reporting process, with the intent of obtaining some private gain”. Healy and Wal hen identify two main incentives for profit manipulation: contracts written in terms of accounting numbers; and capital market expectations and valuation.The first perspective is supported by the tenants of Positive Accounting Theory. They suggest that contracts between the firm and its stakeholders create incentives for earnings management. Precisely, they propose three hypotheses: the bonus plan hypothesis (directors who benefit from bonuses tied to profits are more prone to using accounting techniques that transfer future profits into the present); the debt/equity hypothesis (the more a company is in debt, the more it is in its interest to focus on present earnings because debt covenants, common in the United States, require certain levels of profitability); and the political cost hypothesis (the larger a company, the more it is in its interest to postpone its profits until a future accounting period to face any risk of burdensome legislation being implemented).The second perspective suggests that the goal of earnings manipulation is to be in line with the expectations of the financial markets. Dechow and Skinner underline that academics have mainly focused on contractual incentives, much more than on the influence of capital markets on earnings managemen t and that “this focus has been sustained by the assumption that markets are efficient”.Profit manipulation can take two forms: earnings management and falsification. Earnings management involves postponing the period affected by an operation by changing the measurement methods, speeding up a sale or delaying a purchase.Here, we can make out in the background earnings management as limited to manipulating accounting figures,rather than to profit manipulation that involves acting on real business situations. Falsification involves disclosing wrongful data. In this case, such actions may be considered criminal. However, the fine line between these two types of manipulation remains blurred.Several profit manipulation strategies can be applied: smoothing reduces the variance of earnings and therefore to reduce perceived risk; big bath accounting wipes the slate clean for a new appointed director; or quite simply opportunistic management, the phenomenon supported by tenants of Positive Accounting Theory.Some o f these techniques are the privilege of “headquarters” level, i.e. boardrooms deciding to manipulate corporate results so that consolidated accounts provide the “expected” figures. Other practices presented beloware also used at other levels in the organizations.Positive Accounting Theory researchers almost exclusively focus on top-management level profit manipulation.We deny the hypothesis according to which the director is alone in making accounting decisions. Internal contracting, most often covered in Positive Accounting Theory, deals with the compensation hypothesis. In this area, results from different studies are contradictory. Few studies in the context of Positive Accounting Theory look at internal earnings management. Smoothing could be destined to (1) external users of financial statements, such as investors and creditors, and (2) management itself. More specifically, as far as management is concerned, itshould be noted that the motivation to smooth income is not confined to top management. Lower management may attempt to smooth to look good to the top management. They may try to meet predetermined budgets, which in addition to serving as forecasts, also act as performance yardsticks. That most business unit managers manipulate the performance of their units.There are few empirical studies on internal profit manipulation. Pressure to reach net earnings or budgeted expenses encourages managers to move earnings from year to year by manipulating the accounts. That profit manipulation depends in large part on the forecasting process. In fact, at each level in the organization expectations may be established in one of three ways. Firstly, an independent estimate can be reached independently from any other in the organization. Secondly, an estimate can be reached by aggregating estimates made by lower levels in the organization. Thirdly, an estimate can be reached by disaggregating a higher level estimate. That one response to failure in reaching forecasts is creative book-keeping - there was evidence of a cross allocation of costs in order to protect units from external criticism and to protect reputation.The organization of such protection was an imaginative task for the accounting staff.Lastly, another factor which explains profit manipulation: the result of these case studies indicates that the interdependence of forecasts at different levels when forecasts have been made by disaggregating may encourage managers to take a series of defensive positions and make the information and reporting systems opaque. How much profit manipulation takes place does not only depend on how accounting is used to evaluate the performance of managers and their pay but also how forecasts are made that will be used as a baseline for such performance appraisal. Thus, the remuneration hypothesis put forward in the Positive Accounting Theory does not suffice to explain internal profit manipulation.The agency model in a French contextProfit manipulation performed by management controllers must be put in perspective. The Anglo-Saxon model of corporate governance is consistent with a specific cultural context, and lends factual data, and therefore accounts, a special status. Indeed, the American approach to collecting and handling factual data is intimately tied to the American way of life. Judicial or quasi-judicial procedures, which are held in high esteem, give fundamental value to material proof. The way data is collected and used reflects the American preference for accounts that everyone should render public. Accounting statements correspond perfectly to this way of thinking.The French distinguish two roles factual data is likely to play: enabling us to understand better how things work; and providing a means of assessing people. In the French system, confusing these two roles (which is perfectly legitimate in the United States) generates resistance. The controller’s sense of responsibility alone (meaning what he feels responsible for, and not what he needs to account for) makes him pay attention to information he receives. The French model hardly encourages us to judge each person on the basis of such data and is opposed to superiors demanding accounts that are too stringent. That subordinates may protect themselves from all hierarchical “interference” by surrounding their a ctivity in a shroud of opacity is not considered an illegitimate act.As a consequence, it is the legitimacy of accounts that lies at the heart of the debate in a French context. In general, accounts can be seen as perfectly legitimate by an individual, when they are only seen as signals enabling him to see clearly the direct and indirect consequences of hisactions, leaving him room to draw his own conclusions. Such an approach seems well adapted to the way one’s sense of duty is expressed in French societ y. It is expected that accounts would encourage stakeholders in their actions to take into account what a narrow-minded or short-term vision of their responsibilities would lead them to neglect.In the Anglo-Saxon model of governance, accounts are part of a conception, which completely opposes what would most likely be accepted in France. Designed as strictly financial instruments and short-term assessment criteria, they lose all legitimacy. Since factual data in France has no sacred value, changing or inventing it does not constitute a major transgression. From that point on, manipulating accounts seems to be an ethical practice, almost natural, an act so anchored in everyday values that individuals may not even be aware of it.The relevance of Positive Accounting TheoryPositive Accounting Theory, which studies accounting choices, has been overly interested in earnings management. Despite this attention, academic research has shown limited evidence of earnings management.We focus on two points: the methodology chosen, and the model of man.Theory positions itself in an objective perspective which consists in discerning earnings management from accounting documents, and checking the validity of economic hypotheses formulated on the behavior of managers regarding earnings management.Moreover, Positive Accounting Theory researchers examine large samples of firms to make general statements about earnings management. Dechow and Skinner argue that researchers “tend to use statistical definition of earnings manage ment that may not be very powerful in identifying earnings management”, and conclude that “the current research methodologies simply are not that good at identifying earnings management”.The study of accounting is a social science, an accounting theory that seeks to explain and predict accounting cannot divorce accounting research from the study of people. The contracting approach to studying accounting requires researchers to understand the incentives of contracting parties. The positive accounting literature explains why accounting is used and provides a framework for predicting accounting choices; choices are made in terms of individual objectives and the effects of accounting methods on the achievement of those objectives.Aren’t agency theoreticians victims of “scholastic fallacy” by portraying man as a rational calculator in all situations? Whilst studying the social realm can only be achieved by considering that social agents don’t just do any old thing, that they are not mad, and that they don’t act without purpose, this doesn’t necessarily mean they are opportunists. We have sought to understand practices, to find the reasons that drive people to act as they do.We have noted that management controllers give reasons for manipulating profits that differ according to their position: a search for legitimacy or an ethical stance. We cannot therefore reduce this behaviour to the level of opportunism as put forward by Positive Accounting Theory. Trying to predict behavior without trying to understand it is an illusion. This way of modelling behavior therefore teaches us very little about what drives the behavior of accountingdecision-makers. Does the PositiveAccounting Theory acceptance and use by the scientific community necessarily imply its validity? Is this not simply the shadow of economic imperialism passing over the field of accounting research ?References:1. Colasse B. Auditer, une mission impossible? Sociétal 2003; No. 39, http://www.societal.fr2. Dechow P, Skinner DJ. “Earnings management: reco nciling the views of accounting academics,practitioners, and regulators”, “Accounting Horizons”, No. 14, 2000,3. Lambert, C. and Sponem, S., “Corporate governance and profit manipulation: a French field study”,“Critical Perspectives on Accounting”, No. 16, 2005,4. Ristea, M., Olimid, L., Calu, A., “Sisteme contabile comparate”, Corpul Contabililor AutorizatidinRomania, Bucuresti, 2006http://steconomice.uoradea.ro/anale/volume/2007/v2-finances-accounting-and-banks/95.pdf February 23,2012利润及其操纵摘要：最近的公司丑闻表明，会计作为现今一种体现经济事实的客观的方式，其正遭受到信任危机。
常见法律术语中英文表达法
draft 法案,草案Government bill 政府议案to pass a bill, to carry a bill 通过议案to enact a law, to promulgate a law 颁布法律ratification, confirmation 批准law enforcement 法律的实施to come into force 生效decree 法令clause 条款minutes 备忘录report 判例汇编codification 法律汇编legislation 立法legislator 立法者jurist 法学家jurisprudence 法学legitimation 合法化legality, lawfulness 法制,合法legal, lawful 合法的,依法的to contravene a law, to infringe a law, to break a law 违法outlaw, outside the law 超出法律范围的offender 罪犯to abolish 废止,取消rescission, annulment 废除,取消repeal, revocation, annulment 废除(法律) cancellation, annulment, invalidation 废除(合同) cancellation (支票)作废annulment 撤消(遗嘱)repeal rescission 撤消(判决)revocation 撤消immunity 豁免,豁免权disability, legal incapacity 无资格nonretroactive character 不溯既往性prescription 剥夺公权attainder 公民权利的剥夺和财产的没收constitutional law 宪法canon law 教会法规common law 习惯法criminal law 刑法administrative law 行政法civil law 民法commercial law, mercantile law 商法law of nations 万国公法,国际法international law 国际法natural law 自然法labour laws 劳工法fiscal law 财政法Civil Suit Law, Code of civil law 民事诉讼法Criminal Law 刑事诉讼法Military Law 军法Conscript Law 兵役法Copyright Law 著作权法penal code 刑法典code of mercantile law 商法典civil rights 民事权利,公民权利right of asylum 避难权human rights, rights of man 人权(customs) duties 关税death duty, death tax 遗产税royalties 版税法律英语词汇2009-12-20 20:59:34| 分类：专业英语词汇阅读8 评论0 字号：大中小订阅管辖：jurisdiction级别管辖：jurisdiction by level地域管辖：territorial jurisdiction移送管辖：referral jurisdiction指定管辖：designation jurisdiction审判组织: trial organization回避withdrawal诉讼参加人participants in court诉讼当事人parties in court诉讼代理人agents ad litem期间：time periods送达service调解conciliation财产保全property preservation先予执行preliminary execution妨碍民事诉讼的强制措施：compulsory measures against impairment of civil actions 诉讼费：litigation costs第一审普通程序ordinary procedure of first instance第二审程序procedure of second instance起诉bring a lawsuit受理accept a case开庭审理trial in court诉讼中止suspension of a lawsuit诉讼终止conclusion of a lawsuit判决judgment裁定order简易程序summary procedure特别程序special procedure选民资格案件cases concerning certificates of voters宣告失踪proclamation of a person as missing宣告死亡proclamation of a person as dead无民事行为能力incompetent for civil conduct限制行为能力limited capacity for civil conduct无主财产property of ownerless执行申请application for execution执行移转referral of execution仲裁arbitration司法协助judicial assistanceAabsolute proof 绝对证明absolute property 绝对财产（权）abstract of title 产权书摘要acceleration clause 提前（偿还）条款acceptance 承诺accident report 事故报告accident insurance 意外保险accusation 指控；控告accusatorial procedure 控告程序accusatorial process of proof 控告证明过程（程序）accusatorial system 控告或诉讼程序accused 被指控者accuser 控告人acknowledgement 认知(书)acquittal 无罪判决act 条例；作为Act for the prevention of Frauds and Perjuries 《预防诈欺和伪证条例》action 诉讼；作为actual losses 实际损失adjudication 裁决；裁定administrative law 行政法administrative law judge 行政法法官administrative procedure 行政程序administrator 管理人；监管人admissible 可采的admissibility 可采性admit 采用；允许adoption 收养adulterous conduct 通奸行为ad valorem property tax 从价财产税adversarial hearing 对抗式听证会adversarial process 对抗式程序adversary 对手adversary trial system 对抗式（或抗辩）审判制度advocacy 出庭辩护；诉讼代理advocate 辩护人；诉讼代理人affidavit 正式书面陈述affirm 维持（原判）affirmation 保证书；证词affirmative 确保的agency （行政）机关agency action 机关（行政）机关agreed upon remedies 补救协议agreement 协议agreement-as-written 书面协议agreement -in-fact 事实协议alibi 阿里白（不在犯罪场的证明）alienation of affection 离间夫妻关系allegation 声称；指控allege 诉称；指控alleged offense 所控罪行alternate juror 替补陪审员amendment 修正案American Bar Association 美国律师协会American Law Institute 美国法学会analogy 类推Anglo-American Legal System英美法系anonymous accusation匿名控告appeal上诉appear出庭appellant上诉人appellate action上诉行为appellate court上诉法院appellee被上诉人appealer上诉人appropriate拨款appurtenant附属物arbiter仲裁人arbitrary武断的arbitration仲裁arraignment初审array陪审员名单arrest逮捕arrest warrant逮捕令（证）arrestee被捕人article条款，文章article of authority授权条款articles of confederation《联帮条例》articles of incorporation公司组织章程artificial person法人Asian American legal defense and education fund亚裔美国人法律辩护与教育基金会assault意图或威胁伤害assert主张，宣称asset资产assistant attorney助理法官associate judge副法官associate justice副大法官assumption违约合同，违约赔偿之诉assumption 假定attempt意图，企图attempted escape逃脱未遂attestation证词attorney代理人，律师attorney at law律师attorney general检察长authentication鉴定authority权力，法源，权威性依据automobile insurance机动车保险automobile tort机动车侵权行为autonomy自治（权）Bban禁令，禁止banishment流放bankruptcy 破产bankruptcy discharge破产债务解除bankruptcy judge破产法官bar律师职业bar association律师协会barrister出庭律师battery殴打bench trial法官审beneficiary受益人benefit收益，福得bigamy重婚罪bill of lading提单bill of right《人权法案》bind over具保，具结binder临时保险单binding有约束力binding contract有约束力的合同binding force约束力binding interpretation有约束力的解释black-letter law（普通接受之基本原则的）黑体字法black nation bar association全美黑人律师协会blue sky law蓝天法（关于股票买卖控制的法律）Board of Governors（ABA）（美国律师协会的）董事会body of law 法体bond 债券；保释金bond instrument 债券契据branding 鞭笞breach 违约；破坏bride 贿赂bribery 贿赂（罪）bright-line test 明显界限检验标准broker 中间人brokerage fee 佣金；中介费brother-sister corporation 兄弟公司；姊妹公司Bulk Sales Act《大宗销售条例》burden 责任burden of going forward with the evidence 先行举证责任burden of persuasion 说服责任；证明责任burden of producing evidence 举证责任burden of proof 证明责任burglary入室盗窃（罪）business corporation实业公司business law 实业法business organization 实业组织buy-out agreement（股权）承买协议buy-sell agreement（股权）买卖协议bylaws（内部）章程CCalifornia Penal Code《加州刑法典》capital account 资本帐户capital crime 可判死刑罪capital punishment 死刑capital surplus 资本盈余capitation tax 人头税career criminal 职业罪犯career judiciary 职业法官case briefing 案情摘要case-in-chief 主诉case law 判例法case method 案例教学法case report 判决报告case reports 判例汇编casualty insurance （意外伤害）保险catalog 商品目录（单）certificate 证书certificate of existence 实体存在证明（书）challenge 置疑；挑战challenge for cause有理回避chancery court 衡平法院charging instrument 控告文件checks and balances 制衡（原则）chief judge 首席法官chief justice 首席大法官child abuse 虐待儿童circuit court 巡回法院circuit judge 巡回法官circumstantial evidence 旁证；情况证据citation 引证cite 援引；传讯civil court 民事法civil forfeiture 民事罚没civil law 民法Civil Law Legal System 民法体系civil liability 民事责任civil Liberty 民事自由civil Litigation民事诉讼civil procedure 民事诉讼程序civil suit民事诉讼Civil trial 民事审判法律英语词汇（2）2009-12-20 21:02:17| 分类：专业英语词汇阅读10 评论0 字号：大中小订阅Civil right 民权Civil right law 民权法Civil War Income Tax Act 《内战所得税条例》Claim 诉讼请求，索赔Classification of law 法律分类Close corporation内部持股公司Closely held corporation 内部持股公司Closing 终结，成交，结帐Closing argument 最后论述Closing statement成交声明Code 法典Code of Judicial Conduct 《法官行为准则》Codify 编成法典Co-felon 共同重罪犯Cohabitation 同居Collateral contract 附属合同Collegiate bench 合议席Collegiate panel 合议庭Commercial clause 商务条款，贸易条款Commercial law 商法Commercial paper 商务文件Commission佣金Commit 交托，犯（罪）Commitment 犯罪，许诺，委托Commitment of financing 融资许诺Common law 普通法Common law damages 普通法赔偿金Common law legal system(family) 普通法法系Common law marriage 普通法婚姻Common property 共同财产Common stock 普通股票Community property 共同财产Comparative law 比较法Comparative negligence 比较过失Compensation 赔偿（金）Compensatory damage 应予赔偿之损害Competence 管辖权限Competency 有效性Complaint 控告，申诉Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 《滥用毒品的综合预防与控制条例》Compulsory license 强制性许可Concur附条件地同意Concurring opinion 并存（判决）意见Confer 授与Conference 协商会议Confidential information 保密信息Confiscation 没收Conflict law 冲突法Congress 国会Consent 同意，认可Consideration 对价，约因Constitution 宪法Constitutional Convention 制宪会议Constitutional law 宪法Constitutional tort 宪法性侵权Constitutionality 合宪性Construction （法律的）结构，解释Construe 解释，分析Consultation 磋商Consumer protection statute 消费者保护法律Consumption tax 消费税Continental Law Legal System(or Family) 大陆法系Contingent fee 胜诉酬金Continuance 诉讼延期Contract 合同Contract dispute 合同纠纷Contract formation 合同构成Contract interpretation 合同解释Contract law 合同法Contract performance 合同履行contractor 承包商contravence 触犯;违犯contributory negligence 共同过失controlling law 应适应之法律conversion 非法占有convey 转让conveyance 转让convertible bond 可转换债券conviction 有罪判决convincing evidence 使人信服的证据copyright 版权;著作权corporal punishment肉体刑corporate camsel 公司法律顾问corporate excise tax 公司执照税corporate law 公司法corporation 公司corporation aggregate 合有公司corporation code 公司法典corporation law 公司法corporation sole 独有公司corpus 尸体;本金Council on legal Education Opportunities 法律教育机会委员会counselor (法律)顾问;律师counselor-at-law 律师court 法院;法官court decision 法院判决court fee 诉讼费court of appeals 上诉法院court of chancery 衡平法法院court of claims 索赔法院court of customs and Patent Appeals 关税及专利上诉法院court of domestic relations 家庭关系法院court opinion 法院判决意见courtroom 法庭coverage 保险范围crime 犯罪crime code 刑法典crime homicide 有罪杀人crime justice system 刑事司法系统crime law 刑法crime liability 刑事责任crime procedure 刑事诉讼程序cross-examination 交叉盘问;盘诘cruel and unusual punishment 残忍和非常的刑罚cumulative evidence 累计证据curative 临时监护的curriculum guide 课程指南custody 监护custom duty 关税customary law 习惯法customary practice 惯例customs court 关税法院Ddamage 损害;损伤damage claim 损害赔偿请求damages 损害赔偿金deadlocked jury 僵局陪审团death penalty 死刑death tax 遗产税debenture 债单(券)debt securities 债权证券decide a case 判案deed 契约deed book 文契汇编defamation 诽谤default 不履行;违约defendant 被告人defence 辩护defence attorney 辩护律师defense's case-in-chief 辩护方主讼deficiency judgment 不足额判决degrees of murder (恶意)杀人罪的等级delegation 授权delegated legislation 授权立法deliberate intention 故意deliberation (陪审团)评议demonstrative evidence 示意证据deprivation 剥夺derogatory treatment of the work 对作品的贬毁性处理(或使用) designs 设计detract 毁损;贬低developer (土地)开发商dicta 判决附带意见dignity 尊严direct evidence 直接证据direct examination 直接盘问direct tax 直接税disa bility insurance 残疾保险disabled dependent child 无谋生能力的残疾儿童discharge 解雇;释放discount 贴现;折扣discovery 要求告知discrete risk transfer product 离散性风险转移(保险)产品discretion 自由裁量权discriminatory 歧视性税收dispense 执行;施行dispute 争议;纠纷disposition 处置(权)dissent 异议;反对dissenting opinion 异议;反对意见dissolution 解散distort 歪曲;误解district attorney 地区检查官database right 数据权dividend 股息division of title 产权分割divorce 离婚docket 备审案件目录doctrine 法则;原则doctrine of constitutional supremacy 宪法至上原则doctrine of Maranda Warnings 米兰达忠告原则document 文件;文书document of title 产权证书domant Commerce Clause 休眠的"贸易条款"domicile 住所地double jeopardy 一罪二审draft 起草;草拟draftman 起草者drug trade 毒品交易drug trafficking 毒品交易dry run 干转;排练due diligence 适当努力due process 正当程序Due Process Clause 正当程序条款due process test 正当程序检验标准duration 期限duress 强迫;胁迫duty 义务;关税duty of care 照看义务法律英语词汇（3）2009-12-20 21:03:22| 分类：专业英语词汇阅读16 评论0 字号：大中小订阅earnest money 定金easyment 地役权ecclesiastical court 宗教法庭economic law 经济法effective date 生效日期effective time 生效时间element of crime 犯罪要素(件)empower 授权enact 制定;颁布en banc 全体法官出庭审判encroachment 侵占encumbered property 抵押财产enforce 实施；执行enforceable 可强制执行的enforceability 可执行性enforcement of Law 执法English-American Legal System (or Family) 英吉利法系enjoin(衡平）强制令entail 限定继承entity 实体environmental impact statement 环境影响报告environmental Law 环境保护法Environmental protection Agency(EPA) 环境保护局environmental quality 环境质量equal protection clause 平等保护条款equitable relief 衡平救济equity 衡平法equity Law 衡平法equity precedent 衡平法判例equity securities 产权证券；衡平证券error 过错escape 逃走；逃脱escrow 第三者保存合同essential justice 实质公正estate财产；遗产estate tax 遗产税ＥＵDirective 欧盟指令evaluate 评价evict 逐出（租户）evidence 证据evidentiary presumption 证据推定evidentiary rule 证据规则ex aequo at bono 公平且善良examine 检查；盘问examination 检查；盘问exception 例外exception clause 例外条款excise tax 执照税exclude 排除exclusive listing 读家上市exclusive right 排他性权利exclusive tax situs 唯一征税地点excusable homicide 可宽恕之杀人execute 执行；签属execution 执行executive acts 行政条例executive branch 行政部门executive order 行政命令executor (遗嘱）执行人executor of estate 遗产执行人exemption 免除；豁免exhibit 展示物（证）exigent circumstance 紧急情况existing securities 上市证券exparte 单方面的expectation damages 预期赔偿金expert 专家（证人）expert testimony 专家证言expert witness 专家证人express contract 明示合同express statutory provision 法律明文规定express warranty 明示保证（保修）ex rel 依据告发face amount 面颊face value 面植facilitate 促使：利于fact 事实fact in issue 争议事实factor 因素；代理商Factors Lien Act 《代理商留置权条例》Fair trial 公平审判false imprisonment 非法拘禁family law 家庭法fault 过错fault principle 过错原则feasibility study 可行性研究Federal Administrative Procedure Act 《联邦行政程序》Federal Antitrust Law 《联邦犯托拉斯法》federal convention 联邦制宪会议federal crime of murder 联邦杀人罪Federal Housing Act 《联邦住房条例》Federal Income Tax Act 《联邦所得税条例》federal judge 联邦法官Federal rules of civil procedure 《联邦民事诉讼规则》Federal rules of criminal procedure 《联邦刑事诉讼规则》Federal rules of evidence 《联邦证据规则》Federal securities act 《联邦证券条例》federal supremacy 联邦至上（原则）Federal tort claims act 《联邦侵权索赔条例》felon 重罪犯felony 重罪felony-murder 重罪杀人fiduciary 受托人file 档案；注册file a petition 呈交诉状；提出请求fine 罚金fingerprint 手印fire insurance 火灾保险fire protection 消防first degree murder 一级谋杀first instance 一审fixture （不动产）附属物flogging 烙印force of law 法律效力forcible felony 暴力性重罪foreign exchange risk 外汇风险forfeiture 没收；罚没form contract 格式合同form of evidence 证据的形式formal adjudication 正式裁决formal rulemaking 正式规则制定formation 构成；鉴定franchise tax 特许经营税fraud 诈欺free enterprise system 自由企业制度free movement of goods 自由物流，货物的自由流通freedom of choice 选择自由frustrate 使受挫折fundamental law 基本法fundamental right 基本权利法律英语词汇（4）2009-12-20 21:04:29| 分类：专业英语词汇阅读12 评论0 字号：大中小订阅general acceptance standard (科学证据的)公认标准general partnership 一般合伙general property 一般财产（权）general provisions 总则gerontocratic 老人统治的gift tax 赠予税government tort 政府侵权（行为）grant of power 授权gross negligence 严重过失group insurance 团体保险guarantee 担保guardian 监护人guardianship 监护权guidelines for sentencing 量刑指南guilt 有罪guilty 有罪的guilty 有罪答辩Hhabitual offender 惯犯hail insurance 冰雹保险handcuff 手铐handwriting 笔迹health insurance 健康保险health regulation 卫生法规hearing 听证（会）hearing of jury 陪审团听审hearsay 传闻证据heir 继承人hierarchy 等级制度high crime 重罪hold 认定；裁定holding 认定；裁定holding device 拥有手段（形式）homicide 杀人（罪）homosexuality 同性恋house counsel （公司）专职法律顾问husband-wife relationship 夫妻关系husband-wife tort 夫妻侵权（行为）IId. 同上identification 认定；确认身份；身份证ignore 忽视；驳回illegal 非法的；违法的immaterial 无实质性的immigration law 移民法immovable property 不动产immunity 豁免（权）impair 损害；削弱impeachment 弹劾；质疑implementation 实施；执行implied contract 默认合同implied warranty 默认保证（保修）imprisonment 监禁imputable 可归罪于……的imputation 归罪in re 关于；案由in recess 休庭in rem 对物的（诉讼）in session 开庭inadmissible evidence 不可采证据incarceration 禁闭；监禁incest 乱伦income tax 所得税Income Tax Act 《所得税条例》income tax on corporations 公司所得税income tax on individuals 个人所得税incompetence 无行为能力；无法律资格incompetent 无行为能力的；无法律资格的incorporation 法人；公司；组成公司incorporator 公司创办人independent regulatory agency 独立规制机构indicative list 指导性名单indictment 起诉书indirect evidence 间接证据indirect tax 间接税individual choice 个人选择（权）individual freedom 个人自由individual omni competence 个人全权individual proprietorship 个体业主individual right 个人权利ineffective 失效的inequality 不平等infamous 罪恶的；丑恶的inference 推理;推论infliction 处罚informal adjudication 非正式裁决informal rulemaking 非正式规则制定information 信息; 控告书infomer 耳目;情报员initial ruling 初步裁定injunction 禁令;强制令injunctive relief 强制救济injure 伤害injustice 不公正innocence 无罪innocent 无罪的;无罪者innocent owner defense 无过错所有人辩护inquiry 调查inquisitiorial system 纠问式诉讼制度insane 精神失常insanity defense 精神失常辩护inspection 检查;审查installment land vendor 分期付款的土地出售人installment plan agreement 分期付款购物协议instruction 指示instrument 文件insurable interest 可保利益insurable loss 可保损失insurance agent 保险代理商insurance binder 临时保单insurance broker 保险中间人insurance card 保险卡insurance coverage 保险范围insurance law 保险法insurance policy 保险单;险种insurance premium 保险费insurance proceeds 保险收益insurance product 保险项目insured 被保险人insurer 保险人intangible 无形的intangible damage 无形损害intangible property 无形财产intangible personal property 无形的人身财产(权)inter alia 除了别的以外interfere 干涉;侵犯interlocutory injunction 临时强制令;(诉讼)中间的强制令intermediate appellate court 中级上诉法院intermetional business 调解interrogation 国际商务intentional 故意的intentional tort 故意侵权行为interest 利息;权益;利益interest rate risk 利率风险interview 询问invalid 无效的;不合法的invalidate 使无效invasion of privacy 侵犯隐私权investigation 侦查;调查investment 投资investment portfolio risk 投资风险组合investment securities 投资证券irrelevancy 无相关性irrelevant 不相关的irrelevant evidence 无相关性证据irrevocable 不可撤销的irrevocable life insurance trust 不可撤销的人寿保险信托itinerant judge 巡回法官法律英语词汇（5）2009-12-20 21:05:16| 分类：专业英语词汇阅读19 评论0 字号：大中小订阅Jjoint tenancy 共同租借(权)joint venture 合资企业joint venture corporation合资公司joint venture with Chinese and foreign investment中外合资企业judge法官judge-made law法官立法judge's chamber法官室judge's charge to jury法官对陪审团的指令judge's instruction to jury法官对陪审团的指示judgment判决，裁定judicial branch司法部门judicial clerkship法院书记员职位judicial decision 法官职位judicial district司法区judicial interpretation司法解释judicial notice司法任职judicial opinion法官判决意见judicial review司法审查judicial scrutiny司法检查judicial subjectivity审判主观性judicial system法院系统judiciary法官jurisdiction司法管辖区jurisprudence法理学juror陪审员jury陪审团jury charge法官对陪审团的指令jury pool待选陪审员库jury selection挑选陪审员jury trial陪审团制justice公正，大法官justice of the peace治安法官justifiable homicide正当杀人juvenile court未成年人法庭juvenile delinquency未成年人违法行为ＫKey man assurance关键人保险Key person insurance关键人保险Kickbacks回扣Kill杀人Killer杀人者Know-how技术秘密，商业秘密Ｌland use law土地使用法last clear chance doctrine最后明显机会法则law 法，法律law firm律师事务所law merchant商业习惯法law of evidence证据法law reform法律改革lawsuit诉讼，官司lawyer律师lawyer in government政府律师；官方律师lawyer in private practice私人开业律师lawyerette律师娘lawman外行人lay witness普通证人；非专家证人lease租赁lease agreement租赁协议legacy遗产legacy tax遗产税legal合法的legal advice法律咨询legal commentary法律评论legal education法律教育legal effect法律教育legal enforcement法律效力legal English法律英语legal family法系legal history 法律史legal instrument 法律文件legal mechanism法律机制legal memorandum 法律备忘录legal methodology 法律方法论legal order 法律秩序legal problem 法律问题legal profession 法律职业legal protection 法律保护legal relationship 法律关系legal representative 法律代表legal safeguard 法律保障（措施）legal system 法律体系；法律制度legal theorist 法学理论家legal writing 法律文书写作legalese 法律涩语legality 法制legislation 立法legislative branch 立法部门legislative history 立法史legislature 立法机关legitimate 合法的levy 征收（税）liability 责任；债务liability insurance 责任保险liberty 自由license plate （车）执照牌license tax 执照税lien 留置（权）life estate 终生财（遗）产life insurance 人寿保险limited partnership 有限合伙liquidated damages 预定违约金liquidity risk 流动资金风险literary property 著作产权litigant 诉讼当事人litigation 诉讼；打官司livestock insurance 家畜保险loan 贷款lord chancellor (英国)大法官loss of rights 丧失权利Jurisprudence，History of Legal Systems and Constitution按照法律规定according to law按照确定的份额分享权力：be entitled to rights in proportion to his proper share of the credit按照确定的份额分担义务：assume obligations in proportion to his proper share of the debt案例教学法case system案例汇编case book；case report；law report柏拉图Plato《保护人权与基本自由公约》（1950）Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms，1950（罗）被视为be deemed as被宣布为非法be outlawed；be declared illegal比较法comparative law比较法学comparative jurisprudence比较法学派school of comparative jurisprudence比较法制史comparative legal history比较分析法method of comparative analysis比较刑法comparative penal law比较刑法学comparative penal jurisprudence必然因果关系positive causal relationship边缘法学borderline jurisprudence变通办法adaptation；accommodation补充规定supplementary provision补救办法remedial measures不成文法unwritten law不成文宪法unwritten constitution不动产所在地法律law of the place where the real property is situated；lex loci rei immobilisci不可分割的权利impartible right不可抗力force majuere不可侵犯性inviolability不可让与性inalienability不履行法律义务non-performance of obligation不要式行为informal act不要因的法律行为non-causal juristic act不因实效而丧失的权利imprescriptible right不作为abstain from an act；act of omission部门法department law部门规章regulation参照consult参照具体情况in the light of actual conditions参照原文consult the original查士丁尼法典Code Justinian；Codex Justinianus查士丁尼法规汇编Authenticum超出法律范围的outside of law超出法律权限的extralegal超过权限exceed authority；beyond jurisdiction成文法written law成文宪法written constitution冲突法conflict of laws；rules of conflict冲突规则conflict rule；rule of conflict除（本法）另有规定外except for otherwise stipulated （by this law）除外条款provisory clause除外责任条款exclusion clause触犯公共利益encroach on the public interests触犯国际利益go against the state's interests触犯人民利益encroach on the interests of the people；go against the people's interests传统法律观念traditional ideas of law纯粹法学pure theory of law次要法规by law次要规则secondary rule从宽解释原则doctrine of liberal construction从权利accessory right达到法定年龄come of age大法the fundamental law大法官Lord High Chancellor大法官法院Court of Chancery大陆法系Continental Legal System大律师barrister《大明律》Criminal Law of the Ming Dynasty（中）大陪审团grand jury《大清律例》the Criminal Laws of the Qing Dynasty （中）《大宪章》（1215）Great Charter，1215（英）单行法规specific regulations单一法律体系unitary legal system单一制政府unitary government但书proviso当代法学动向current trend of jurisprudence当然解释natural interpretation党纪国法party discipline and the law of the country道德规范norm of morality道德义务moral obligation《德国民法典》German Civil code德拉古Draco地方各级人民代表大会local people's congresses at different levels 地方各级人民法院local people's courts at different levels地方各级人民检察院local people's procuratorates at different levels 地方各级人民政府local people's governments at different levels第二读second reading第三读third reading二元论the dualistic theory二元君主立宪制dual constitutional monarchy system二元论the dualistic theory二元论者dualist二元制bicameral system法的本质the nature of law法的变化changes of law法的定义definition of law法的发展development of law法的分类divisions of law法的概念concepts of law法的规范作用normalized usage of law法的继承succession of law法的精神spirit of law法的可预测性foreseeability of law法的类型types of law法的历史类型的更替the replacement of one historical mode of law by another 法的历史渊源historical origin of law法的连续性continuity of law法的内容contexts of law法的社会作用social usage of law法的生效operation of law法的实现realization of law法的特征character of law法的现象legal phenomenon法的消亡withering away of law法的形式渊源formal source of law法的要素elements of law法的渊源source of law法的职能function of law法的作用role of law法典code；statute book法典编纂codification of codes法定成年人的年龄age of majority；legal age法定程序legal procedure法定处罚statutory penalty法定代理人：agent ad litem法定解释statutory interpretation法定量刑情节legally prescribed circumstances of sentencing 法定年龄legal age；lawful age法定年龄限制 a statutory age limit法定期间prescribed time法定期限legal term法定权利legal right；right entitled by law法定权限limits of power prescribed by law法定人数quorum法定日appointed day法定时间appointed time法定时效statutory prescription法定条件legal condition法定限制statutory restrictions法定效力statutory force法定刑legally-prescribed punishment法定形式legal form法定责任statutory duty法定追溯期time of legal memory法定最高刑maximum statutory penalty；maximum statutory sentence 法官judge法官的自由裁量权judge's power of discretion法官权力范围extent of judge's power法官心证judge's mental impression法官中立原则Nemo debt esse judex in propria causa法规编纂condification of laws and regulations法规的解释interpretation of statutes法规汇编corpus of the laws and regulations《法国民法典》Code Civile de Francais （法）法理jurisprudence；principle of law法理学家jurisprudent法律保护legal protection法律编纂codification法律标准legal standards法律补救legal redress法律部门legal department法律草案draft regulations法律措施legal measures法律大全Corpus legum法律的本土化和改写the localization and adaptiion of laws 法律的本质essence of law法律的地位position of law法律的定义definition of law法律的废止abolishment of law法律的公共秩序论public order theory of law法律的规范性normalization of law法律的继承succession of law法律的理想ideal of law法律的权威authority of law法律的失效lapse of law法律的实施administration of law；law enforcement法律的适用application of law法律的统一unification of law法律的推定presumption of law法律的推理analogy of law法律的完整性integrity of law法律的效力范围force's scale of law法律的效力形式force's form of law法律的修改alteration of law法律的演进evolutin of law法律的原理principle of law法律地位平等equal in legal status法律对人的效力personal act of law编纂法律方法legal methodology法律分类classification of law法律赋予权力authority conferred by law法律改革law reform法律概念legal concept法律根据legal basis法律工作者legal professional法律关系legal relation法律关系的运行process of legal relation法律关系客体object of legal relation法律关系主体subject of legal relation法律规定provisions of law法律规范norm of law法律规范的逻辑结构logical structure of legal rule 法律规则体系system of legal rules法律含义intendment of law法律另有规定：otherwise stipulated by law法律现象legal phenomenon法律研究legal research法律要件legal requirement法律依据legal basis法律意见legal advice法律意见书legal opinion法律意识law-consciousness法律意义legal sense法律用语legal language法律与正义先验论 a prior theory of law and justice法律渊源source of law法律原本注释gloss法律原理legal doctrines法律原则principle of legality法律援助legal aid法律约束legal binding；legal restraint法律责任legal responsibility法律责任的道义基础moral basic of legal obligation法律责任的归结imputaton of legal responsibility法律责任的认定determination of legal responsibility法律责任的执行enforcement of legal responsibility法律责任客体object of legal responsibility法律责任主体subject of legal responsibility法律哲学philosophy of law；philosophie du droit （法）；philosophia juris 法律政策policy of the law法律职业道德legal ethics法律指导legal counsel法律制裁legal sanction法律制度regime of law；legal system法律秩序legal order法律主体资格capacity as a subject of law法律主张proposition of law法律属地原则territoriality of laws法律著述legal literature法律专家legal expert法律专业legal profession法律专著和教科书legal treati法律咨询legal advice法律尊严legal sanctity法盲legal illiterates法权right法社会学sociology of law法系legal system法协会law society法学jurisprudence法学博士doctor of jurisprudence法学导论leading principles of law法学的范畴体系the system of categories of jurisprudence法学的范畴意识the consciousness of category of jurisprudence 法学的基石范畴fundamental categories of jurisprudence法学方法method of jurisprudence法学方法论methodology of jurisprudence法学会law society法学教科书law textbooks。
hypothesis介词
hypothesis介词"Hypothesis"是一个来自希腊语的词，意为“假说”或“假设”。
在科学、哲学和数学等领域中，我们经常使用这个词来描述一个尚未被证实的理论或观点。
然而，当我们谈论"hypothesis"与介词的关系时，我们需要明确介词是用来连接名词、代词或其他词组的词，它们在句子中起到表示关系的作用。
首先，我们来看看与"hypothesis"一些常见的介词搭配：1. "about"：这个介词通常用来表示关于某个主题或问题的想法或理论。
例如：“关于宇宙的起源，有一个流行的假设。
”（There is a popular hypothesis about the origin of the universe.）2. "on"：这个介词可以用来表示在某个特定主题或领域上的假设。
例如：“他写了一本关于气候变化的假设的书。
”（He wrote a book on the hypothesis of climate change.）3. "for"：这个介词可以用来表示为证明某个观点而提出的假设。
例如：“科学家提出了一个假设，以解释这种奇怪的现象。
”（Scientists proposed a hypothesis to explain this strange phenomenon.）4. "of"：这个介词可以用来表示某个假设的内容或范围。
例如：“这个假设涉及到生物学的一个复杂问题。
”（This hypothesisis of a complex issue in biology.）5. "from"：这个介词可以用来表示某个假设的来源或起源。
例如：“这个假设来自于对古代文明的研究。
”（This hypothesis comes from the study of ancient civilizations.）6. "in"：这个介词可以用来表示在某个特定领域或背景下的假设。
hypotheses
hypothesesHypothesesIntroductionIn the world of scientific research, hypotheses play a critical role in the formulation of experiments and studies. A hypothesis is a statement or assumption that is made based on limited evidence or observations and serves as a starting point for further investigation. This document aims to explore the concept of hypotheses, their importance, and how they are formulated and tested in various scientific disciplines.What is a Hypothesis?A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or a question that can be tested. It is an essential element of the scientific method and is used to guide research and experiments. Hypotheses are usually based on existing knowledge, previous observations, or theories, and serve as an attempt to explain or predict a particular phenomena.Formulating a HypothesisThe process of formulating a hypothesis requires careful consideration of the existing knowledge and evidence. To develop a hypothesis, researchers typically follow a few key steps:1. Identify the research question: The first step in formulatinga hypothesis is to clearly identify the research question or problem that needs to be addressed. This question should be specific and focused to provide a clear direction for the research.2. Review existing knowledge: Once the research question is identified, it is important to review the existing knowledge and literature related to the topic. This helps in understanding previous findings and theories that can inform the formulation of a hypothesis.3. Generate possible explanations: Based on the existing knowledge, researchers generate possible explanations or predictions for the research question. These explanations are known as hypotheses and should be testable and falsifiable.4. Refine the hypothesis: After generating the initial hypotheses, researchers refine and narrow down the options to develop a more focused and specific hypothesis. This is done by considering factors such as feasibility, relevance, and available resources.Testing a HypothesisOnce a hypothesis is formulated, it needs to be tested through experimentation or observation. The process of testing a hypothesis involves the following steps:1. Design the experiment: The researcher designs an experiment or study that will allow them to collect data and test the hypothesis. The design of the experiment should be carefully planned to ensure that it provides valid and reliable results.2. Collect and analyze data: During the experiment, data is collected and analyzed to determine whether the results support or refute the hypothesis. Statistical analysis is often used to evaluate the significance of the findings and to draw meaningful conclusions.3. Draw conclusions: Based on the analysis of the data, the researcher draws conclusions about the hypothesis. If the results support the hypothesis, it is considered to be validated. On the other hand, if the results contradict the hypothesis, it may be necessary to revise the hypothesis or develop new ones for further investigation.Importance of Hypotheses in Scientific ResearchHypotheses are a fundamental aspect of scientific research for several reasons:1. Guiding research: Hypotheses provide a clear direction for research, allowing researchers to focus their efforts on specific questions or problems. They help in organizing the research process and ensuring that it is purposeful and systematic.2. Promoting objectivity: Hypotheses help in maintaining objectivity in scientific research by providing a framework for testing and evaluating ideas. They prevent bias and ensure that the research is based on evidence and logic rather than personal opinions or beliefs.3. Advancing knowledge: By formulating hypotheses and testing them through rigorous experimentation, researchers contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields. Hypotheses that are supported by evidence can lead to new discoveries and insights.4. Identifying limitations: Hypotheses allow researchers to identify and address the limitations of existing knowledge and theories. They highlight the gaps in understanding and provide opportunities for further investigation and refinement of theories.ConclusionHypotheses are a critical component of scientific research. They provide a starting point for investigation, guide research efforts, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge. By formulating and testing hypotheses, researchers can better understand the world around us and make meaningful contributions to their respective fields.。
2024年广东广州市英语中考考前冲刺题(含答案)
2024年广州市英语中考考前冲刺题一、语法选择（共15小题；每小题1分，满分15分）阅读下面短文，按照句子结构的语法性和上下文连贯的要求，从1~15各题所给的A、B、C和D 项中选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。
Chen Xingrong won five medals, including a gold, at the 11th National Games for Persons with Disabilities and the 8th National Special Olympics Games.Born in Hainan Province, Chen Xingrong could not say a word ___1___ he was 2 years old. When Chen Xingrong ___2___ autistic（自闭的）, his parents were worried. In 2012, his father learned that swimming could help people with autism, ___3___ he spent months learning how to swim by watching videos and reading books. When Chen Xingrong was 5 years old, he began to teach him how to swim. At the very beginning, he spent three months teaching his son, but all his efforts ___4___. To his surprise, after ___5___ three months, he discovered that his son had developed the ability to control his breath under water, ___6___ greatly increased his confidence, and swimming soon became a key activity of the family. His father planned all his exercises for him at first, but then it was all up to him. He decided how many exercises he wanted to do, and his parents respected his choices. It was ___7___ process of self-management. With his father’s help as well as his good self-management and perseverance, he succeeded in ___8___ many medals in the swimming ___9___ .As well as swimming, learning basic life skills is ____10____ an important part of life for a teenager with autism. His father hopes ____11____ his son can live well on his own when he and his wife grow old. ____12____ the public to know more about autistic people so as to reduce misunderstanding, he once organized about 500 people to watch an autism-themed film.Thanks to his father’s ____13____ efforts, Chen Xingrong has learned to buy food in the market in ____14____ neighborhood. He also does voluntary jobs at supermarkets and fast-food restaurants, such as arranging shelves and cleaning dining tables. “He is good at ____15____ arranging things. He is part of the community, and I hope he will live a wonderful l ife in the future,” his father says proudly.1. A. as B. until C. when D. since2. A. found B. had found C. was found D. is found3. A. so B. but C. or D. because4. A. fail B. fails C. failing D. failed5. A. other B. another C. others D. the other6. A. whose B. which C. what D. who7. A. a B. an C. the D. /8. A. win B. wins C. winning D. won9. A. compete B. competitive C. competitor D. competitions10. A. include B. included C. including D. includes11. A. how B. that C. which D. what12. A. Help B. Helping C. Having helped D. To help13. A. end B. ending C. endless D. endlessly14. A. their B. theirs C. them D. they15. A. skill B. skilled C. skillful D. skillfully二、完形填空（共10小题；每小题1分，满分10分）阅读下面短文, 从短文后所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中, 选出能填入相应空白处的最佳选项。
药物不良反应通讯(第11期)
药品不良反应监测通讯2006年 9月埃利斯宣言WHO国际药物监测合作中心等国际组织于1997年9月27日在意大利西西里岛的埃利斯联合召开了由30个国家参加的发展药物监测信息交流国际会议，会议发表了"埃利斯宣言"（The Erice Declaration ）。
该宣言旨在促进药物安全信息的交流，其内容如下。
前言：药物安全性的监测、评价和交流是一项具有深远意义的卫生事业，它依赖于有关方面的公正和集体责任，他们包括消费者、卫生专业人员、研究人员、学术界、宣传媒体、制药工业、药品管理官员、政府部门和国际机构。
高度的科学标准、伦理标准、职业标准和道德标准，在这项事业中必须起主导作用。
药物利弊的不确定性需要承认并加以解释。
基于这种不确定性而采纳的决定和措施应符合科学性临床原则，并考虑到社会现实和环境。
药物安全信息在社会各阶层的差距，导致怀疑、误传及误导等危害，甚至形成一种风气：隐藏、压制或忽视药品安全数据。
事实必须与推测和假说加以区别，采取的措施应考虑到受害者的需要及他们必须的治疗。
对于这种措施还需要在国家和国际上建立制度和法律，以保证全面地、公开地交流信息和有效的评价标准。
该标准应保证对药物的利弊能够进行评价、解释和公开地采取措施，以提高普遍的信任和信心。
来自30个国家的与会者一致同意下述声明规定的基本要求：1. 药物安全信息必须为公众健康报务。
这种信息无论在内容和方法上都必须符合道德规范，并能有效地交流。
事实、假说和结论要加以区别，承认不确定性，信息的提供要适合一般性的需要和个别的需要。
2. 关于药物正确使用的教育，包括对安全信息的解释，对广大公众、病人和医务工作者都是至关重要的。
进行这种教育需要特殊的承诺和资源。
针对公众的药物信息，无论采用何形式，在药物的风险和利益方面要得到平衡。
3. 必须使人们容易得到评价及了解风险和利益所需要的一切证据。
要认识到压制交流信息将阻碍人们达到既定目标，这种现象应予以克服。
11.8号托福阅读真题答案解析
11.8号托福阅读真题答案解析本文关于2017年11月18日阅读真题回忆，有利于考生备考复习。
让我们回忆一下最近考试的内容：环境类，生物类，词汇题等，请考生们要认真的阅读哦，来店铺会给你不一样的精彩内容，店铺会在考试后第一时间更新。
11.8号托福阅读答案解析阅读部分考试回忆如下：1. Preventing Overgrowth among Tree Branchesshedding剪枝的意义。
一个是因为有些树枝消耗掉的碳物质比生产的多，另一个原因是有时候气候很干，剪枝减少水的消耗。
词汇题补充：exposed = unprotectedwith no warning = without any indication beforehandcongestion = overcrowding2. Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Reefs冠状棘海星，话题重复2011.01.08珊瑚的消失和一种海星的数量猛增有关系，主要说的是导致猛增的原因(环境+人)词汇题补充：outbreak = sudden increaseaccompany = occur along withconverge = come togetherseverity = seriousness原题重现：The crown of thorns starfish, Acanthaster Tlanci, is large, twenty-five to thirty-five centimeters in diameter, and has seven to twenty-one arms that are covered in spines. It feeds primarily on coral and is found from the Indian Ocean to the west coast of Central America, usually at quite low population densities. Sincethe mid-1950s, population outbreaks at densities four to six times greater than normal have occurred at the same time in places such as Hawaii, Tahiti, Panama, and the Great Barrier Reef. The result has often been the loss of a fifty percent to nearly one hundred percent of the coral cover over large areas.A single Acanthaster can consume five to six square meters of coral polyps per year, and dense populations can destroy up to six square kilometers per year and move on rapidly. Acanthasters show a preference for branching corals, especially Acroporids. After an outbreak in a particular area, it is common to find that Acroporids have been selectively removed, leaving a mosaic of living and dead corals. In places where Acroporids previously dominated the community devastation can be almost complete, and local areas of reefs have collapsed.Areas of dead coral are usually colonized rapidly by algae and often are later colonized by sponges and soft corals. Increases in abundance of plant-eating fish and decreases in abundance of coral-feeding fish accompany these changes. Coral larvae settle among the algae and eventually establish flourishing coral colonies. In ten to fifteen years the reefs often return to about the same percentage of coral cover as before. Development of a four-species diversity takes about twenty years.Two schools of thought exist concerning the cause of these outbreaks. One group holds that they are natural phenomena that have occurred many times in the past, citing old men's recollections of earlier outbreaks and evidence from traditional cultures. The other group maintains that recent human activities ranging from physical coral destruction through pollution to predator removal have triggered these events.One theory, the adult aggregation hypothesis, maintains thatmost species is more abundant than we realize when a storm destroys coral and causes a food shortage. The adult Acanthasters converge on remaining portions of healthy coral and feed hungrily. Certainly there have been outbreaks of Acanthaster following large storms, but there is little evidence that the storms have caused the enough reef damage to create a food shortage for these starfish.Two other hypotheses attempt to explain the increased abundance of Acanthaster after episodes of high terrestrial runoff following storms. The first hypothesis is that low salinity and high temperatures favor the survival of the starfish larvae. The second hypothesis emphasizes the food web aspect, suggesting that strong fresh water runoff brings additional nutrients to the coastal waters, stimulating phytoplankton production and promoting more rapid development and better survival of the starfish larvae.Those favoring anthropogenic (human influenced) causes have pointed to the large proportion of outbreaks that have been near centers of human populations. It has been suggested that coral polyps are the main predators of the starfish larvae. Destruction of coral by blasting and other bad land use practices would reduce predation on the starfish larvae and cause a feedback in which increases in Acanthaster populations cause still further coral destruction. Unfortunately, there are too few documented instances of physical destruction of coral being followed by outbreaks of Acanthaster for these hypotheses to be fully supported.Another group of hypothesis focuses on removal of Acanthaster's predators. Some have suggested that the predators might have been killed off by pollution whereas othershave suggested that the harvesting of vertebrate and invertebrate predators of Acanthaster could have reduced mortality and caused increased abundance of adults. The problem with this group of hypothesis is that it is difficult to understand how reduced predation would lead to sudden increases in Acanthaster numbers in several places at the same time in specific years. It seems probable that there is no single explanation but that there are elements of the truth in several of the hypotheses. That is there are natural processes that have led to outbreaks in the past, but human impact has increased the frequency and severity of the outbreaks.3.Dorset Culture格林兰岛Dorset Culture的起源，首先是由于气候变冷，一部分人迁走了，另一部分留下来的人创立了文明。