新版简明英语语言学 Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学
第六张语用学pragmatics
第六张语用学pragmatics Chapter 6pragmatics一、定义1.语境Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language,it's generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.2.言语行为理论Speech act theory It's an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.it's aphilosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.it aims to answer the question"what do we do when using language?"The concept of causatives performatives,the locutionary act,the illocutionary act,the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory.3.叙述句Constatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe,and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.；4.行为句Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state afact or describe astate,and are not verifiable.5.言内行为Locutionary Act Alocutionary act is the act ofuttering words,phrases,clauses.it's the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention it's the act performed in saying something.7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.it's the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.8.句子意义Sentence meaning It refers to asentence and is agrammatical concept,the meaning of asentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.9.话语意义Utterance meaning It refers to asentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication,it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered.10.合作原则Cooperative Principle It's proposed and formulated by P.Grice,a pragmatic hypothesis,is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate,otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.11.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice,it refers to the extra meaning not contained in thutterance,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker's knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。
Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料
Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。
并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。
新编简明英语语言学教程_第二版_戴炜栋6_pragmatics
For example,“It is cold in here.”
Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold in here; Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to shut the window; Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request. ----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.” Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
Correctness vs. appropriateness
“John play golf”---- grammatically incorrect; “Golf played John” ---- logically incorrect; but it might be appropriate pragmatically in certain context. Note: Pragmatics can make sense out of nonsense, given a suitable context. Appropriateness is very important in linguistic communication, especially in cross-cultural communication. If you say something grammatically incorrect, you are at worse condemned as “speaking badly”, but, if you say something inappropriately, you will be judged as “behaving badly”, such as insincere, untruthful, or deceitful. (Thomas, 1983)
6.Pragmatics 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
extralinguistic context
context of situation
time & space of the communication subject of communication formality of communication
relationship of participants
b. The patient is lying in bed when the nurse comes in. the window is open. The patient says: It’s cold in here.
Within context, the two utterances have different meanings. In (a), Cecilia most probably suggests, “let’s leave here and find a warmer place”, while in (b), the patient is suggesting to the nurse: “Close the window please”.
knowledge about the language
linguistic context
knowledge about the linguistic environment
common sense
Context
background knowledge social-cultural conventions speech conventions
linguistic and contextual
knowledge
knowledge
Semantics
新版简明英语语言学Chapter6pragmatics语用学
新版简明英语语言学Chapter6pragmatics语用学Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点：1.*Definition: pragmatics; context2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory4.Searle’s classification of speech acts5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle考核目标：识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle一、定义1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。
语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。
(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。
)2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
新编语言学教程chapter 6 pragmatics
you don’t work today. (c). Situation: John promised to go shopping
with his wife on Sunday. I: Don’t forget what you promised.
Utterance: unit of speech actually used for communication. It can be understood as the speaker’s purpose or the speaker’s intention.
1.2 Context
Generally, context refers to the background knowledge shared by the speaker and hearer, including general knowledge of the world, knowledge specific to the situation of communication, specific to the counterparts of communication, the knowledge of the purpose of communication.
• Performatives: different from constatives, performative is used to perform an action, to do a thing. Uttering a performative is doing a thing.
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
[整理]新编简明英语语言学教程笔记
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新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
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Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点：1.*Definition: pragmatics; context2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory4.Searle’s classification of speech acts5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle考核目标：识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle一、定义1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。
语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。
(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。
)2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
二、知识点6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。
语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。
两者都是对意义的研究。
传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。
因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。
语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。
语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.6.1.3 contextContext 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic studyof language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。
一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
（语境是交际双方共有的知识，它包括双方具有的语言知识以及有关客观世界的知识，而客观世界的知识又包括有关世界的常识性知识以及交际发生的实际情景知识。
）(参考p79英p235-236中例子)6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义1）Sentence meaning句子意义---abstract抽象的, decontextualized脱离语境的2）Utterance meaning话语意义---concrete具体的, contextualized依赖语境的，it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语的意义是基于句子意义之上的；它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际场合，或仅在一个语境中的体现。
区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
句子是语法单位。
当把句子用在实际交际中时，句子便成了话语。
句子意义是抽象的，是句子的语义内容，它孤立于语境之外；话语意义是具体的，它基于句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人的意图和目的。
由于话语语义是句子意义与语境结合的结果，话语语义要比句子的语义丰富得多。
如：”You are a machine.”句子的意思是“你是机器。
”，但是一旦与具体的语境相结合，就会产生不同的话语语义，如说话人可能是说听话人没有情感，或说听话人不知疲倦地工作，或者说听话人做事比较机械等。
要如何理解它要视它所发生的语境和言者说这话的目的而定。
大部分话语在语法形式上与句子相吻合，但是也有一些话语在语法上是不完整的，有些甚至不能还原为完整的句子。
如，语言使用者在特定的语境中可以使用话语” The door, please!”去行使关门的请求。
像“Hi!” 和“Ouch!”这样的话语很难还原成语法完整的句子。
❀区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
While most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences.In terms of syn tax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences6.2 speech act theory言语行为理论6.2.Austin’s model speech act 奥斯汀的言语行为模式1.英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出了speech act theory言语行为理论。
在他的言语行为理论中，奥斯汀区分了叙事话语(constative)和行事话语(performative)。
P238中 e.g.1）叙事话语是陈述之言，用于陈述或描述，其真值是可以检验的。
2）行事话语的话语不是以陈述或描述事实为目的的，是没有真值的。
奥斯汀认为语言使用者在使用句子时并不总是为了去陈述或描述，而是为了实施一个言语行为。
2. 他又设立了另一个新模式，定义了言内行为locutionary act、言外行为illocutionary act,和perlocutionary act言后行为奥斯汀认为人在说话时很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为（locutionary act）、言外行为(illocutionary act)和言后行为(perlocutionary act)。
1）言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身，如说出单词、短语和句子等。
言内行为通过句法、词汇和语音传递一个字面语义。
2）言外行为是通过说话这一动作实施一种行为，体现了说话人的说话意图。
人们通过说话可以达到各种目的，如传递信息，发出命令、作出承诺、提出建议等。
3）言后行为是指说话带来的后果，例如通过说话听话人受到了警告等。
e.g. You have left the door wide open.1）Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. 表达了每个词的字面意义。
2）Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. 表达了他说话的意图（即请某人把门关上，或者抱怨，视语境而定。
）3）Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 指话语的效果（即听者听到言者信息，明白并言者要他关门，并把门关上，这样就成功地实施了。
）※在这三种行为中，语言学家对illocutionary act言外行为最感兴趣this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and alsohow his intention is recognized by the hearer. 因为这种语言行为与言者的意图一致，而且在他们对语言交际的研究中，语言学家门最感兴趣的是言者是如何表达其意图，以及他的意图是如何为听者所识别。
（它与说话人的真实意图相吻合。
）6.2.2 Searle’s classification of speech acts（Searle对语言行为的分类）美国语言学家John Searle把illocutionary act言外行为分为五大类：the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.每一类中的具体行为都具有相同的言外之意，但是他们的力度有所不同。