新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 7 Language change语言变化分析
unit 7 Language change
Back-formation
----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. • edit editor • hawk hawker • beg beggar • baby-sit baby-sitter
• Yes, and so is every other human language. Language is always changing, evolving, and adapting to the needs of its users. If English hadn't changed since, say, 1950, we wouldn't have words to refer to modems, fax machines, or cable TV. As long as the needs of language users continue to change, so will the language. But reading Shakespeare's writings from the sixteenth century can be difficult. If you go back a couple more centuries, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales are very tough sledding, and if you went back another 500 years to try to read Beowulf, it would be like reading a different language.
Chapter 7 Language change
Chapter 7 Language Change Introduction►Change as a universal factTime changes all things: there is no reason whylanguage should escape this universal law.–Ferdinand de Saussure, linguist (1857-1913) ►Gradual, almost imperceptible语言的发展►语言是人类社会的产物，随着社会的发展变化，语言也在不断地发展变化。
语言的发展指语言的历史变化。
语言在不断地发展变化着，只是它的速度极其缓慢，以致我们有时很难察觉。
如：唐代白居易的名篇《长恨歌》前四句：―汉皇重色思倾国，御宇多年求不得，杨家有女初长成，养在深闺人未识。
‖如古汉语里的：时不我待；走；钟►所谓语言的发展演变应该是指不同时期语言系统的发展变化。
临时性的语言调整不能视为语言在发展变化。
换句话说，我们今天能够认识到的所谓语言的变化，最初只是以个别人的个别临时用法的面貌出现的，它很可能不被接受，至少不被多数人接受。
它最终被大家认可需要一定的时间，更重要的是自身要有一定的价值，例如具有独到的表达效果，方便快捷等。
如：同志；网吧；QQ；Google语言发展的特点►语言处于不断的变化发展中。
跟其他任何事物一样，语言的发展有着自身的特点。
概括起来说，语言发展具有渐变性和不平衡性。
1 渐变性渐变性是指语言的发展是渐变的，而不是突变的，是通过语言内部旧质要素的逐渐消亡和新要素的逐渐积累来实现的。
如在古英语中，复数名词的所有格由词尾–a 表示，在现代英语中这种语法手段全都消亡了。
hāma --- homes’hūsa --- houses’hāmes --- home’s2 不平衡性语言发展的不平衡性有两方面的含义：一是指各种语言或方言发展速度是不平衡的，二是指同一种语言内部各要素的发展速度是不平衡的。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二课后习题答案chapter7
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二课后习题答案chapter7Chapter 7 Language Change1. The vocabulary of English consists of native and also thousands of borrowed words. Look up the following words in a dictionary which provides the etymologies (history) of words. In each case speculate as to how the particular word came to be borrowed from a particular language.a. sizeb. skillc. royald. ranche. robotf. potatog. astronaut h. emerald i. pagodaj. khaki k. bulldoze 1. hoodlum答：a. size (< old French)b. skill (< old Norse)c. royal (< old French < Latin)d. ranch (< Spanish < French)e. robot (< Czech < old Church Slavonic)f. potato (< Spanish < Taino)g. astronaut (< French)h. emerald (< Middle English & old French)i. pagoda (< Persian < Sanskrit)j. khaki (< Hindi <persian)< p="">k. bulldoze (< bull(Botany Bay Slang) < old English)l. hoodlum (< German)2. The Encyclopedia Britannica Yearbook has usually published a new word list, which is, in the Britanni ca’s editor'sview, a list of those words that had entered the language during the year. Would you expect a yearbook to publish a “lost-word list” recording the words dropped from the language during the year? Defend your answer.答：(略)3. Below is a passage from Shakespeare's Hamlet,King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send thither to see.If your messenger find him not there, seek him i' theother place yourself. But indeed, if you find him notwithin this month, you shall nose him as you go up thestairs into the lobby.Act IV, scene iiiStudy these lines and identify every difference in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.答：In modern English, these lines are more likely written as: King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send to see there. If your messenger cannot find him there, yourself seek him at the other place. But indeed, if you cannot find him within this month, you shall notice him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.4. Comment with examples on the following statement “Words and expressions will be forced intouse in spite of all the exertions of all th e writers in the world.”答：The statement means that when necessary, people will make use of available uses even if there is no writers' efforts. For example, there are more and more new words and expressions which are introduced into language not by writers, e.g., email, hacker, IBM (international big mouth, means a person who acts like a gossip.)5. Suppose you are outside a government office where doors still bear the notice, “This door must not be left in an open position.” Now try to explain the noti ce in simple and plain English.答：“Keep the door dote. ” or “The door must be kept close.”6. Give at least two examples showing the influence of American English on British English.答：(略)7. Find in any books, newspapers, or journals newly coined words in association with social and political needs, internet or computer language.答：For example: SARS, Golden week, euro, e-mail, bi-media(双媒体的), cybernaut计算机(网络)漫游者, DVD, eyephone(视像耳机), etc．8. With examples, give some plausible explanations for linguistic change.答：(略)</persian)<>。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋7 Language Change
Meaning shift
inn: a small, old hotel or pub well-known, nice hotel nice: ignorant (1000 years ago) good, fine lust: pleasure with negative and sexual overtones silly: happy naï ve, foolish
Some recent trends
Moving towards greater பைடு நூலகம்nformality The influence of American English
The influence of science and technology
The influence of science and technology
Changes in the meaning of words
Widening of meaning Narrowing of meaning Meaning shift
Widening of meaning
holiday: [+specific] holy day [+general] any rest day [+specific] tail of a horse [+general] tail of any animal
Simplification & elaboration/ complication coexist, e.g. The disappearing of case ending results in rigid sentence structure.
Syntactic change
Language Change新编语言学教程
As a branch of linguistics, historical linguistics is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.
Lexical and semantic change
Addition of new words Loss of words Semantic changes
1)semantic broadening 2)semantic narrowing 3)semantic shift
Addition of new words
Loss of words
Words can be lost from a language as time goes by. The
following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language. Beseem to be suitable Wot to know Gyve a fetter Wherefore why
Metathesis
Epenthesis Great Vowel Shift
Morphological and syntactic change
Addition of affixes Loss of affixes Change of word order Change in negation rule
Space travel Computer and internet language Ecology
简明英语语言学教程 Chapter 7
• Children's acquisition of language is quickly and effortlessly. It seems that their acquisition process is simple and straightforward . • In the learning of language , children's grammar is never exactly like that of the adult community . • Language has a lot of dialects and many individual styles.The features of these grammers may the merge(合并)----lead to certain rules of language may be simplified or overgeneralized.
• The reasons for some changes are relatively obvious. For example, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words.Such as bullet train ,laser printer,CD-ROM , laptop computer, iphone. • Social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with a great number of new words and expressions: shuttle diplomacy,mini-summit,jungle war,Scientific Outlook on Development • Some other words have also changed as women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men .
7 Language Change
•
Middle ELeabharlann glish• • • • •
From 1066 - 1485 Meaning depended on word order Influence of French in particular Some Latin influence Rich vocabulary with many synonyms e.g. kingly – royal – regal • Printing starts to standardise written language
The Anglo Saxon Invasions
AngloAnglo-Saxon
• Anglo Saxon became the language of
England • There was some small influence of Christianity seen in some Latin words • Many of the common words and swear words come from Anglo-Saxon Anglo• This period is known as Old English and lasted from about 450-1066 450-
Scandinavian Elements
N: anger, bull, cake, egg, fellow, guest, sky, skin, sister, husband, kind, knife, etc Adj: Adj: flat, ill, low, loose, odd, ugly, wrong, rotten, wrong, etc V: call, die, guess, get, raise, seem, scream, take, want, thrive,etc Pron: Pron: they, their, them.
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记 赶考秘籍)
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。
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Chapter 7 Language change语言变化知识点：1.*Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation2.Morphological and syntactic change3.*Vocabulary change4.Some recent trends in language change5.Causes of language change考核目标：识记：Definition: clipping; blend; acronym; back-formation领会：Morphological and syntactic change; Vocabulary change简单应用：Some recent trends in language change; Causes of language change一、定义1. Clipping略写词：A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.指比较长的词或短语的缩写2. Blending 混合法：A process of forming a new word by combining parts oftwo other words.3. Acronym首字母缩略词：words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的首位字母构成新词4. Back-formation 逆向构词法：new words are formed by taking away thesuffix of an existing word. 新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀而被创造出来二、知识点7.2 Phonological changes元音变化One of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in theAround the death of Chaucer in 1400，元音开始了进一步的转变。
中世纪英语的vowel 元音经历了巨大的变化：p261中，p94英7.3 Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化7.3.1 Addition of affixes词缀增加词汇的增加borrowing 和word formation.The most obvious way in which modern English differs lexically from old English is the number of Borrowed words from other languages.由于英语从法语中借入了诸如favourable和accomplishment一类的词使得-able和 -ment加入到英语的形态系统中。
Grammaticalization: In addition to the borrowed affixes, some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time.Fusion融合:refers to this type of grammaticalization in which word develop into affixes, either prefixes前缀 or suffixes.后缀1）prefixes前缀：affix + base2）suffixes.后缀：base + affixMany of modern English suffixes are derived from early words by means of fusion. (p95英)7.3.2 Loss of affixes词缀丢失（p96英see）在古英语中， -bora通常加在名词的后边派生出一个表示相应动作的执行者的名词，但是在现代英语中这个派生后缀已经丢失，如：mund ("protection") + bora mundbora ("protector")派生规则丢失的另外一个例子是-yan的丢失。
在古英语中，-yan加在形容词的后边派生出一个使役动词。
在现代英语中，-yan已经消失。
古英语中有一套性标记系统。
该系统把名词分为阳性词、阴性词和中性词。
古英语中有一半以上名词具有格标记表示不同的格，但是在现代英语中，性和格标记的丢失已成为最为显著的形态丢失之一。
7.3.3 Change of word order规则的改变古英语中有一个复杂的格标记系统，语法功能可以用格标记很好地揭示出来。
格标记的存在使得古英语的词序比现代英语要灵活得多。
例如，古英语的词序包括SVO,VSO, SOV 和OSV，而在现代英语中，由于绝大多数格标记的丢失使得句子必须遵从SVO这一基本词序。
Subject object verbS O V7.3.4 Change in negation rule否定规则的改变英语句子结构方面的规则变化主要体现在词序上。
在中古英语时期，“not”加在肯定句句末构成否定句。
但在现代英语中，“not”是加在主动词和助动词之间构成否定句，例如：I deny it not.I love thee not.He saw you not.In modern English, not must precede the main verb, and a do, marked for the proper tense, must be inserted:I love you. →I do not love you.He saw you. →He did not see you.7.4 Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义的变化❀~7.4.1 Addition of new word新词的增加1)coinage创新词：a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose,mostly for new things and objects.是指创造新词。
这些词多来自于产品的商标，如Hoover, Whiteout, Thermofax, Mace是商标名，在现代英语中已经成为普通英语单词：To hoover a floor：用真空吸尘器吸地板上的灰尘To white out a mistake：用白色涂改液涂改错误To thermofax a material：用红外复印术复印材料To mace demonstators：向游行示威者喷射梅斯毒气2)clipped words略写法clipping refers to the abbreviation缩写 of longer words or phrases.：它是指比较长的词或短语的缩写。
例如（p98英）：zoo (zoological garden)gym (gymnasium)copter (helicopter)phone (telephone)3)blending混合法：a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words 它是通过组合其他词的某些部分而构成新词，例如（p99英）：medicare( medical + care)smog (smoke + fog)comsat (communications + satellite)brunch (breakfast + lunch)4）acronymys首字母缩略法: words derived from the initials of several words通过组合每个词的首位字母构成新词，例如（p99英）：VIP (very important person)OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)5）backformation逆向构词法：new words may be coined from already existing words by“subtracting减法”an affix thought to be part of the old word.新词可以通过“去掉”现存的词的后缀而被创造出来，e.g.（p100英）：edit (由editor得出的一个错误设想，认为“or”是一个agentive suffix)enthuse（由enthusiasm得出）(derived from enthusiasm)burgle (由burglar得出)baby-sit (由baby-sitter得出)to hawk (由hawker得出)to butch(由butcher得出)to beg(由beggar得出)6）functional shift功能转换：words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.单词可以不通过加入词缀就从一个词类转到另一个词类。
e.g.（p100英）7）borrowing借用：when differwnt cultures come into contact, words areoften “borrowed”one language to another.the loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word.当不同的文化发生接触时，词就经常从一种语言“借到”另一种语言之中。
外来词可以标记一个新的概念，或可以取代或成为本族词的同义词。
e.g.P266-267中英语词汇增加的历史特点是大量的借词和构词。
来自法语的借词，例如：Government, religion, chaplain, crime, medicine, physician来自希腊语的借词：Myth, geometry, gymnastics来自拉丁语的借词：Formula, memorandum, datum, curriculum来自西班牙语的借词：Banana, mosquito, embargo, plaza来自德语的借词：Kindergarten, dock, seminar, plunder, zinc来自汉语的借词：Lichi, typhoon, tea, ginseng7.4.2 Loss of words词汇的丢失古英语和中古英语中的许多词在现代英语中都已消失，例如：demiss, ere, oft, wot, beseem, wer, aught, thee, thou, thy，等。