电子电气类专业毕业设计外文翻译

附录一：外文原文

Super capacitors - An Overview

Key words: Electrostatic capacitor; Electrolytic capacitor; Ceramic capacitor;

Electrical double layer capacitor; Super Capacitor

1.INTRODUCTION

This paper offers a concise review on the renaissance of a conventional capacitor toelectrochemical double layer capacitor or super capacitor. Capacitors are fundamental electrical circuitelements that store electrical energy in the order of microfarads and assist in filtering. Capacitors havetwo main applications; one of which is a function to charge or discharge electricity. This function isapplied to smoothing circuits of power supplies, backup circuits of microcomputers, and timer circuitsthat make use of the periods to charge or discharge electricity. The other is a function to block the flowof DC. This function is applied to filters that extract or eliminate particular frequencies. This isindispensable to circuits where excellent frequency characteristics are required. Electrolytic capacitorsare next generation capacitors which are commercialized in full scale. They are similar to batteries in cell construction but the anode and cathode materials remain the same. They are aluminum, tantalum and ceramic capacitors where they use solid/liquid electrolytes with a separator between two symmetrical electro des.

An electrochemical capacitor (EC), often called a Super capacitor or Ultra capacitor, stores electrical charge in the electric double layer at a surface-electrolyte interface, primarily in high-surface-area carbon. Because of the high surface area and the thinness of the double layer, these devices can have very a high specific and volumetric capacitance. This enables them to combine a previously unattainable capacitance density with an essentially unlimited charge/discharge cycle life. The operational voltage per cell ,limited only by the breakdown potential of the electrolyte, is usually<1 or <3 volts per cell for aqueous or organic electrolytes respectively.

The concept of storing electrical energy in the electric double layer that is

formed at the interface between an electrolyte and a solid has been known since the late 1800s. The first electrical device using double-layer charge storage was reported in 1957 by H.I. Becker of General Electric (U.S. Patent 2,800,616).Unfortunately, Becker’s device was imp ractical in that, similarly to a flooded battery, both electrodes needed to be immersed in a container of electrolyte, and the device was never comercialised.

Becker did, however, appreciate the large capacitance values subsequently achieved by Robert A. Rightmire, a chemist at the Standard Oil Company of Ohio (SOHIO), to whom can be attributed the invention of the device in the format now commonly used. His patent (U.S. 3,288,641), filed in 1962 and awarded in late November 1966, and a follow-on patent (U.S. Patent 3,536,963) by fellow SOHIO researcher Donald L. Boos in 1970, form the basis for the many hundreds of subsequent patents and journal articles covering all aspects of EC technology.

This technology has grown into an industrywith sales worth severalhundred million dollars per year. It is an in dustry that is poised today for rapid growth in the near term with the expansion of power quality needs and emerging transportation applications.

Following the commercial introduction of NEC’s Super Capacitor in 1978, under licence from SOHIO, EC have evolved through several generations of designs. Initially they were used as back-up power devices for v is for cells ranging in size from small millifarad size devices with exceptional pulse power performance up to devices rated at hundreds of thousands of farads, with systems in some applications operating at up to 1,500 volts. The technology is seeing increasingly broad use, replacing batteriesolatile clock chips and complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) computer memories. But many other applications have emerged over the past 30 years, including portable wireless communication, enhanced power quality for distributed power generation systems, industrial actuator power sources, and high-efficiency energy storage for electric vehicles(EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).Overall, the unique attributes of ECs often complement the weaknesses of other power sources like batteries and fuel cells.

Early ECs were generally rated at a few volts and had capacitance values measured from fractions of farads up to several farads. The trend today in some cases and in others complementing their performance.

The third generation evolution is the electric double layer capacitor, where the electrical charge stored at a metal/electrolyte interface is exploited to construct a

storage device. The interface can store electrical charge in the order of 6

10Farad. The main component in the electrode construction is activated carbon. Though this concept was initialized and industrialized some 40 years ago, there was a stagnancy in research until recent times; the need for this revival of interest arises due to the increasing demands for electrical energy storage in certain current applications like digital electronic devices, implantable medical devices and stop/start operation in vehicle traction which need very short high power pulses that could be fulfilled by electric double layer capacitors. They are complementary to batteries as they deliver high power density and low energy density. They also have longer cycle life than batteries and possess higher energy density as compared to conventional capacitors. This has led to new concepts of the so-called hybrid charge storage devices in which electrochemical capacitor is interfaced with a fuel cell or a battery. These capacitors using carbon as the main electrode material for both anode and cathode with organic and aqueous electrolytes are commercialized and used in day to-day applications. Fig.

1 presents the three types of capacitors depicting the basic differences in their design and construction.

Figure 1.Schematic presentation of electrostatic capacitor, electrolytic capacitor and electrical double layer capacitor.

EDLCs, however suffer from low energy density. To rectify these problems, recently researchers try to incorporate transition metal oxides along with carbon in the electrode materials. When the electrode materials consist of transition metal oxides, then the electrosorption or redox processes enhance the value of specific capacitance ca. 10 -100 times depending on the nature of oxides. In such a situation, the EDLC is called as super capacitor or pseudo capacitor . This is the fourth generation capacitor. Performance of a super capacitor combines simultaneously two kinds of energy storage, i.e. non-faradic charge as in EDLC capacitors and faradaic charge similar to

processes proceeding in batteries. The market for EC devices used for memory protection in electronic circuitry is about $150-200 million annually. New potential applications for ECs include the portable electronic device market, the power quality market, due particularly to distributed generation and low-emission hybrid cars, buses and trucks. There are some published reviews on capacitors and super capacitors . In the present overview, the evolution of electrochemical double layer capacitors starting from simple electrostatic capacitors is summarized.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PART

The invention of Leiden jar in 1745 started the capacitor technology; since then, there has been tremendous progress in this field. In the beginning, capacitors are used primarily in electrical and electronic products, but today they are used in fields ranging from industrial application to automobiles, aircraft and space, medicine, computers, games and power supply circuits. Capacitors are made from two metallic electrodes (mainly Si) placed in mutual opposition with an insulating material (dielectric) between the electrodes for accumulating an electrical charge. The basic equation relating to the capacitors is:

C = εS/d (1)

where C(μF) is the electrostatic capacity, the dielectric constant of the dielectric, S (cm2) the surface area of the electrode and d (cm) the thickness of the dielectric. The charge accumulating principle can be described as follows: when a battery is connected to the capacitor, flow of current induces the flow of electrons so that electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery and so they flow towards the power source. As a result, an electron deficiency develops at the positive side, which becomes positively charged and an electron surplus develops at the negative side, which becomes negatively charged. This electron flow continues until the potential difference between the two electrodes becomes equal to the battery voltage. Thus the capacitor gets charged. Once the battery is removed, the electrons flow from the negative side to the side with an electron deficiency; this process leads to discharging. The conventional capacitors yield capacitance in the range of 0.1 to 1 μ

F with a voltage range of 50 to 400 V. Various materials such as paper (ε, 1.2-2.6), paraffin (ε 1.9-2.4), polyethylene (2.2-2.4), polystyrene (ε, 2.5-2.7), ebonite (ε, 2-3.5), polyethylene tetraphtharate (ε,3.1-3.2), water (ε, 80) sulfur（ε, 2-4.2), steatite porcelain (ε, 6-7), Al porcelain (ε, 8-10), mica（ε, 5-7)and insulated mineral oil (ε, 2.2-2.4) are used as dielectrics in capacitors.

The capacitance output of these silicon based capacitors is limited and has to cope with low surface-to volume ratios of these electrodes. To increase the capacitance, as per eq., one has to increase to ?or S and decrease; however the ?value is largely determined by the working voltage and cannot be tampered. When aiming at high capacitance densities, it is necessary to combine the mutual benefits achieved with a high permittivity insulator material and an increased effective surface area. With Si as the substrate material, electrochemical etching produces effective surface area. The surface area of this material gets enlarged by two orders of magnitude compared to unetched surface. Electrochemically formed macroporous Si has been used for the preparation of high aspect ratio capacitors with layered SiO2/Si3N4/SiO2 insulators. Research work on the modification of conventional capacitors to increase the specific capacitance is also in progress. Approximately 30 times higher capacitance densities are reported recently for Si/Al2O3/ZnO: Al capacitor where Si is electrochemically etched porous one. Another way identified to increase the surface area of the electrodes is to form anodically formed oxides (Al, Ta); however, ceramic capacitors are based on the high dielectric constant rather than the electrode area.

3. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

The next generation capacitors are the electrolytic capacitors; they are of Ta, Al and ceramic electrolytic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors use an electrolyte as conductor between the dielectrics and an electrode. A typical aluminum electrolytic capacitor includes an anode foil and a cathode foil processed by surface enlargement and or formation treatments. Usually, the dielectric film is fabricated by anodizing high purity Al foil for high voltage applications in boric acid solutions. The thickness of the dielectric film is related to the working voltage of the aluminum electrolytic capacitor. After cutting to a specific size according to the design specification, a laminate made up of an anode foil, a cathode foil which is opposed to the dielectric film of the anode foil and a separator interposed between the anode and cathode foils, is wound to provide an element. The wound element does not have any electrical

characteristics of electrolytic capacitor yet until completely dipped in an electrolyte for driving and housed in a metallic sheathed package in cylindrical form with a closed-end equipping a releaser. Furthermore, a sealing material made of elastic rubber is inserted into an open-end section of the sheathed package and the open-end section of the sheathed package by drawing, whereby an aluminum electrolytic capacitor is constituted. Electrolytic aluminum capacitors are mainly used as power supplies for automobiles, aircraft, space vehicles, computers, monitors, motherboards of personal computers and other electronics.

There are two types of tantalum capacitors commercially available in the market; wet electrolytic capacitors which use sulfuric acid as the electrolyte and solid electrolytic capacitors which use MnO2 as the solid electrolyte. Though the capacitances derived from both Ta and Al capacitors are the same, Ta capacitors are superior to Al capacitors in temperature and frequency characteristics. For analog signal systems, Al capacitors produce a current-spike noise which does not happen in Ta capacitors. In other words, Ta capacitors are preferred for circuits which need high stability characteristics. The total world wide production of Al electrolytic capacitors amounts to US$ 3.8 billion, 99% of which are of the wet type. Unlike Ta solid electrolytic capacitors, the solid electrolyte materials used are of organic origin; polypyrrole, a functional polymer and TCNQ (7,7, 8, 8- tetracyanoquniodimethane) an organic semiconductor. Next, MnO2 solid electrolyte material is formed on the surface of that dielectric layer and on top of that a layer of polypyrrole organic solid electrolyte material is formed by electrolytic synthesis. Following this, the positive and negative electrodes are mounted to complete the electronic component. However, the capacitances of these electrolytic capacitors are in the range 0.1 to 10F with a voltage profile of 25 to 50 V.

The history of development of electrolytic capacitors which were mass produced in the past as well as today is presented by S. Niwa and Y. Taketani . Many researchers try to improve the performance of these electrolytic capacitors by modifying the electrode or electrolyte. Generally, the increases in effective surface area (S) are achieved by electrolytic etching of aluminum substrate before anodization, but now it faces with the limit. It is also very difficult to decrease d because the d value is largely decided when the working voltages are decided. Increase in may be a possible routine to form composite dielectric layers by incorporating relatively large value compounds. Replacement of MnO2 by polypyrrole solid electrolyte was reported to reduce electrostatic resistance due to its higher conductivity; aromatic

sulfonate ions were used as charge compensating dopant ions .A tantalum capacitor with Ta metal as anode, polypyrrole as cathode and Ta2O5 dielectric layer was also reported. In the Al solid electrolytic capacitors, polyaniline doped with inorganic and organic acids was also studied as counter electrode. In yet another work, Al solid electrolytic capacitor with etched Al foil as anode, polyaniline / polypyrrrole as cathode and Al2O3 as dielectric was developed. Ethylene carbonate based organic electrolytes and -butyrolactone based electrolytes have been tried as operating electrolytes in Al electrolytic capacitors. Masuda et al. have obtained high capacitance by electrochemically anodizing rapidly quenching Al-Ti alloy foil. Many researchers have tried the other combination of alloys such as Al-Zr, Al-Si, Al-Ti, Al-Nb and Al-Ta composite oxide films. Composite oxide films of Al2O3-(Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3) and Al2O3- Bi4Ti3O12 on low-voltage etched aluminum foil were also studied. Nb-Ta-Al for Ta electrolytic capacitors was also tried as anode material .

A ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and ceramic, with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. Multilayer ceramic capacitors (MLCs) typically consist of ~100 alternate layers of electrode and dielectric ceramics sandwiched between two ceramic cover layers. They are fabricated by screen-printing of electrode layers on dielectric layers and co-sintering of the laminate. Conventionally, Ag-Pd is used as the electrode material and BaTiO3 is used as the dielectric ceramic. From 2000 onwards, the MLCs market has been growing in pace with the exponential development of communications. They are produced in the capacitance range of 10 F (normally the range of Ta and Al electrolytic capacitors); they are highly useful in high frequency applications. Historically, a ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal non-polar device. The classical ceramic capacitor is the disc capacitor. This device predates the transistor and was used extensively in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g radio receivers) from c. a. 1930 through the 1950s and in discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc capacitors are in widespread use in electronic equipment, providing high capacity and small size at low price compared to the other types.

The other ceramic materials that have been identified and used are CaZrO3, MgTiO3, SrTiO3 etc. A typical 10 F MLC is a chip of size (3.2 x 1.6 x 1.5 mm). Mn, Ca, Pd , Ag etc are some of the other internal electrodes used. Linear dielectrics and antiferroelectrics based o strontium titante have been developed for high voltage disk capacitors. These are applicable for MLCs with thinner layers because of their high coercive fields. One of the most critical material processing parameters is the degree

of homogeneous mixing of additive in the slurry. The binder distribution in the green ceramic sheet, the degree of surface roughness, fine size nickel powder, formation of green sheet, electrode deposition ad sheet stacking etc play a crucial role in the process technology. Any one of these facts if mishandled would result in the failure of the device. For instance, providing a roughess of 5 m thick green sheet to 0.5 m is mandatory so that a smooth contact surface with the inner nickel electrode can be established. This is a very important factor in avoiding the concentration of electric filed at asperities, where the charge emission from the electrode is accelerated, resulting in short failure. Conventional sheet/printing method has a technical limit of producing a thickness around 1 m dielectric; in order to decrease the thickness further, thin film technologies like CVD, sputtering, plasma-spray etc has to be used.

The other types of capacitors are film capacitors which use thin polyester film and polypropylene film as dielectrics and meta-glazed capacitors which incorporate electrode plates made of film vacuum evaporated with metal such as Al. Films can be of polyester, polypropylene or polycarbonate make. Also capacitors are specified depending on the dielectric used such as polyester film capacitor, polypropylene capacitor, mica capacitor, metallized polyester film capacitor etc.

4. DOUBLE LAYER CAPACITORS

Electric/electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) is a unique electrical storage device, which can store much more energy than conventional capacitors and offer much higher power densitythan batteries. EDLCs fill up the gap between the batteries and the conventional capacitor, allowing applications for various power and energy requirements i.e., back up power sources for electronic devices, load-leveling, engine start or acceleration for hybrid vehicles and electricity storage generated from solar or wind energy. EDLC works on the principle of double-layer capacitance at the electrode/electrolyte interface where electric charges are accumulated on the electrode surfaces and ions of opposite charge are arranged on the electrolyte side.

Figure 2.Charge storage mechanism of an EDLC cell under idle and charged conditions.

Fig. 2 shows the mechanism of charge storage in an EDLC cell and Fig. 3 shows the configuration of an typical EDLC cell. There are two main types of double layer capacitors as classified by the charge storage mechanism: (i) electrical double-layer capacitor; (ii) electrochemical double layer capacitor or super/pseudocapacitor. An EDLC stores energy in the double-layer at the electrode/electrolyte interface, whereas the supercapacitor sustains a Faradic reaction between the electrode and the electrolyte in a suitable potential window. Thus the electrode material used for the construction of the cell for the former is mainly carbon material while for the latter, the electrode material consist of either transition metal oxides or mixtures of carbon and metal oxides/polymers. The electrolytes can be either aqueous or non-aqueous depending on the mode of construction of EDLC cell.

Figure 3.Typical configuration of an EDLC cell

There are two general directions of interest. One is the long term goal of the development of electrical propulsion for vehicles, and the other is the rapid growth of portable electronic devices that require power sources with maximum energy content and the lowest possible size and weight.

5. CONCLUSIONS

According to a market survey by Montana, super capacitors are becoming a promising solution for brake energy storage in rail vehicles. The expected technological development outside railway sector is also shown to be highly dynamic: diesel electric vehicles, catenary free operation of city light rail, starting system for diesel engines, hybrid-electric cars, industrial applications, elevators, pallet trucks etc. The time horizon expected for development is next 5 to 10 years. The main development goals will be,

· long life time

· increase of the rated voltage

· improvements of the range of operating temperature

· increase of the energy and power densities

Very recently, hybrid car is introduced in the market but it is turned to be very expensive and out of common man’s reach. Shortage and cost of fossil fuels already instigated alternate technologies viable for traction purposes. In such a situation,

EDLCs are also useful to store energy generated from non-conventional energy sources. A future possibility of service centers set up for EDLC supply similar to petrol (as on date) is not far as the main setbacks in technology development may take a decade for fruitful results.

附录二：外文译文

超级电容器-概述

关键词：静电电容，电解电容器，陶瓷电容器，双电层 ,电容器，超级电容器1．引言

本文为电化学双层电容器或超级电容器提供在一台常规电容器，简明的介绍新生的电化学双电层电容器或超级电容器。电容器是存放电能并且协助过滤的根本电路元素。电容器有二个主要应用; 其中之一是充电或释放电的作用。这个作用适用于电源平流滤波电路，微型计算机备用电路和利用期间充电或释放电的定时器电路。其他是阻拦DC流程的作用。这个作用适用于提取或消灭特殊频率的过滤器。这是其中不可或缺的优秀电路所需的频率特性。电解电容是在充分的标度商业化的下一代电容器。他们类似电池在细胞建筑，但是阳极和负极材料依然保持不变。他们是铝，钽和两个陶瓷电容电解质的地方与他们所使用的液体固体分离器/ 对称的电极。

电化学电容器（EC），往往被称为超级电容器或超级电容，存储电荷的双层电荷在1层表面电解质界面，主要在高电位表面的碳。由于高电位表面是薄的双重层，所以这些设备可以有一个非常高的比和体积电容。这使得他们能够结合以前无法实现的电容用无限的电荷密度/放电循环寿命。每单元的工作电压，只受击穿电位电解质的影响，通常<1或“<3伏的每个细胞水性或有机电解质分别。

该存储的概念电力能源双电层这是形成于界面之间的固体电解质和一直都知道自19世纪末期。第一电气设备使用双层充电储存在报告1957年H.I.贝克尔的通用电气（美国专利2800616）。不幸的是，贝克尔的设备是不切实际的，同样一个充斥电池，电极都需要沉浸在一个容器电解质，并且该设备从未商业化。

贝克尔那样做了，但是随后发现电容值已经被标准石油化学家公司俄亥俄州（索奥）的罗伯特A赖特迈尔发明并且现在正在普遍使用。他的专利（美国3288641），在1962年年底提出并获1966年11月，和一个后续专利（美国专利3536963）由资深研究员索奥唐纳德L.布斯在1970年，形式为基础随后的专利和期刊数百文章涉及ec技术的所有方面。

这项技术已经发展成为一个行业销售价值数1.0亿美元每年。这是一个行

业，这是今天并且准备在不久的将来快速增长，长期与扩张，需要的电能方面的专门人才。

随着商业的引进，NEC公司的超级电容器在1978年，根据从索奥那里拿到的牌照并且进行了一些演变，通过了几个世代的设计。起初，他们被用作后备电源装置挥发性时钟芯片和互补金属氧化物半导体（CMOS）的计算机记忆。但许多其他申请出现在之前的30年，包括便携式无线通信，增强电能质量的分布式发电系统，工业驱动器电源，并高效率电动车辆的能源储存电动车）和混合（混合电动汽车）电动汽车。总体而言，内部细胞的独特属性经常补充其他电力来源的弱点如电池和燃料电池。

早期的内部电容一般在几伏特额定电容值计算，并从分数法拉达数的法拉。这个趋势今天是在电容大小不等的小毫法，脉冲功率大小与特殊设备性能高达百倍额定设备成千上万的法拉，在一些应用系统工作在高达1500伏。该技术是看到越来越广泛的使用，取代在某些情况下，电池和其他补充会优化他们的表现。

第三代演变是双电层电容器，电荷被存放在金属或电解质接口被利用修建存

贮设备。接口可能存放电荷按~6

10法拉的顺序。主要成份在电极建筑是被激活的碳。虽然这个概念初始化了并且工业化了大约40年前，研究停滞不前，直到最近时期; 由于对利益的需要复苏，如目前的需求增加电能储存数码电子设备、需要非常短的大功率脉冲可能由双电层电容器履行的可植入的可移植的医疗设备和中止或者在车牵引的起动操作。他们是补充电池，因为它们能提供高功率密度和能量密度低。他们也有长于电池寿命和具有更高的能量密度比常规电容器。这导致了电化学电容器连接与燃料电池或电池所谓的混合电荷存储设备的新概念。这些电容器用炭和水电解质的电极材料主要用于有机阳极和阴极，都可以商业化和日间使用。图1是在他们的设计和建筑上提出描述基本的区别的电容器的三种类型。

图1.概要介绍静电电容器、电解电容和双层电容器。

EDLCs，受到低能源密度的影响。要矫正这些问题，研究员最近设法与在电极材料的碳一起加入过渡金属氧化物。电极材料包括过渡金属氧化物，当电极材料组成的过渡金属氧化物，然后电吸附或氧化还原加强过程的CA值比电容（10 -100倍取决于性质）在这种情况下，EDLC被称为supercapacitor或pseudocapacitor。这是第四代电容器。超级电容器的表现同时结合二种能量储存设备，即非法拉第负责在双电层电容器电容和法拉第充电过程类似此案中的电池。用于内存保护的EC设备的在电子电路市场年年是大约150-200百亿美元。对ECs的新的潜在的申请包括便携式的电子设备市场、电能质量市场，特别是由于分布式发电和低排放混合动力汽车，公共汽车和卡车。有一些对和超级电容器有关的电容发表的评论。以目前的情况，对电化学双层电容器的演变从开始的简单静电电容器进行总结。

2. 实验部分

自1745年发明的莱顿瓶的电容技术开始;，从那以后，在这个领域有巨大的进展。一开始，电容器主要在电子和电子产品使用，但是他们今天扩大了范围，从工业应用的领域到汽车、航空器和空间、医学、计算机、比赛和电源电路。电容器由在与一份绝缘材料(电介质)的相互反对(主要Si)被做安置的二个金属电极在积累的电荷电极之间。与电容器相关的基本的等式是：

C = εS/d (1)

C (μF)是静电容量、ε电介质的介电常数，S(cm2)电极的表面和d(cm)电介质的厚度。原则上积累的电荷可以被描述如下：当电池被连接到电容器时，电流流诱导流电子，使电子被吸引到电池的正极，因此他们流动往电源。结果，缺电子开发在正面边，变得带阳电荷，并且电子节余发展为消极边，变得带负电荷。这电子流程继续，直到二个电极之间的电位差变得相等与电池电压。因而电容器得到充电。一旦去除电池，电子从消极边流动到另一边，缺失电子; 这个过程导致释放。常规电容器产生电容在与50到400 V.各种各样的材料的电压范围的0.1到1 F范围内例如纸(u1.2-2.6)，石蜡(u1.9-2.4)，聚乙烯(u2.2-2.4)，多苯乙烯(u2.5-2.7)，硬橡胶(u2-3.5)，聚乙烯(3.1-3.2)，水硫磺（u，2-4.2)，块滑石瓷(u6-7)， Al瓷(8-10)， mica（u，5-7)，并且被绝缘的矿物油(2.2-2.4)用来做电容器的电介质。

这些芯片的输出电容的电容是有限的，并且必须应付表面对这些电极容量比率的低落。若需要增加电容。必须增加?或S和减少; 然而使用电压主要取决于?价值，并且不可能被篡改。当针对高电容密度时，与高电容率绝缘体材料和增

加的有效的表面结合达到的互惠是必要的。使用Si作为基体材料，电化学蚀刻产生有效的表面积。这材料表面得到放大，是通过扩大二个数量级并与未腐蚀表面比较。大孔硅电化学形成了用于制备高宽比传统的电容。在增加具体电容的常规电容器的修改的研究工作也过程中。最近报道了大约30倍电容密度硅/铝 /氧化锌： Si电化学上被腐蚀成多孔一个的铝电容器。辨认的另一个方式增加电极的表面将形成正极被形成的氧化物(Al， Ta); 然而，陶瓷电容器是基于高介电常数而不是电极区域。

3. 电解电容

下一代电容器是电解电容; 他们是Ta、Al和陶瓷电解电容。电解电容使用电解质作为在电介质和电极之间的指挥。一个典型的铝电解电容器包括阳极箔及一个阴极箔，由其扩大加工和表面处理或形成。通常情况下，电介质薄膜制备由高纯度铝阳极氧化膜在硼酸的解决方案为高电压应用。电介质薄膜的厚度与铝电解电容的使用电压有关。在切开对具体大小根据设计规格之后，层压制品组成阳极箔，阴极箔这是反对的阳极箔和电介质膜分隔的中间人。阳极和阴极之间的箔，是提供分隔的一个元素。分隔元素电解质在一个被覆盖的金属包裹，没有电解电容的任何电子特征，直到完全地浸洗和安置，圆柱形金属护套封装封闭装备结束。此外，密封材料由有弹性橡胶制成，是一个被插入，被覆盖的包裹，该套包和套包的开放式的绘图部分。电解铝电容器为汽车、航空器、航天器、计算机、个人计算机显示器、主板和其他电子主要使用提供电源。

有钽电容器的二种类型在市场上买得到; 电解电容器，使用硫酸为电解液，使用二氧化锰作为固体电解质。虽然电容Ta和Al电容器是相同的，但是Ta电容器在温度和频率特性上比Al电容器优越。为模拟信号系统，铝电容器产生电流尖峰噪音，但在Ta电容器不发生钉噪声。换句话说， Ta电容器为需要高稳定性特征的电路更受欢迎。Al电解电容的总全世界生产共计三十八亿美元，其中99%是湿型。固体钽电解电容器不同，固体电解质材料是有机物，一个功能聚合物和一个有机半导体。其次，MnO2是电解质材料的组成，在电介质层表面被合成，由电解综合形成。在此以后，正极和负极电极组装好，完成电子元件。然而，这些电解电容电容在范围0.1到10，电压25 F到50 V。

在电解电容的发展的历史中，S. Niwa和Y.Taketani提出大量生产。许多研究员设法经过修改电极或电解质改进这些电解电容的表现。通常，增加有效面积（S是实现铝电解蚀刻基板），在阳极氧化，但现在它面临限制。减少d也是非常难的，因为D价值主要决定于工作电压。这种情况下，综合电介质层数增量是形成可能会通过有价值化合物。MnO2的替换原先的电解质是由于它有更高

的传导性; 芳香磺酸盐离子作为充电补偿的掺杂物离子。铝固体电解电容器与蚀刻铝箔为阳极，聚苯胺/铝作为阴极和polypyrrrole23作为电介质。Masuda通过电化学正极化，迅速熄灭等得到了高电容Al钛合金箔。许多研究员尝试了合金的另一个组合例如Al-Zr, Al-Si, Al-Ti, Al-Nb and Al-Ta综合氧化膜。Al2O3- (Ba0.5Sr0.5TiO3)和Al2O3- Bi4Ti3O12综合氧化膜在低压被铭刻的铝芯的也被被认为是类似的。Ta电解电容的Nb TaAl也被尝试了当阳极材料。

一个陶瓷电容，陶瓷电容与金属构造和层交替陶瓷材料作为电介质的。陶瓷电容（通常由一层陶瓷与覆盖层之间交替两个电极和电介质陶瓷夹着）。典型的多层陶瓷电容器(MLCs)包括电极和电介质陶瓷。他们通过放映式打印在电介质层数的电极层和焊接层制造压制品。按常规，AgPd作为电极材料，BaTiO3作为陶瓷的电介质使用。 2000年以前， MLCs市场在与通信的指数发展的步幅增长。他们生产电容范围在10 F (通常范围Ta和Al电解电容); 他们在高频率应用上是非常有用的。从历史上看，陶瓷电容器是一种双端非极性设备。经典陶瓷电容器是圆盘电容器。这个设备把晶体管的使用日期提早，广泛地使用了在真空管设备(即无线电接收机)。从1930，经过20世纪50年代和20世纪50年代的分离晶体管设备到20世纪80年代。在2007年，陶瓷圆盘电容器在电子设备的普遍使用，它提供高容量和小尺寸，在同类中有很高的性价比。

其他发现了的采用陶瓷材料，使用了的其他陶瓷材料的是CaZrO3、MgTiO3，SrTiO3等。一个典型10 F MLC是 (3.2 x 1.6 x 1.5 mm) 大小的芯片。Mn、Ca、Pd，Ag等使用的是某些其他内部电极。基于线性电介质已开发出高压电容器磁盘。这些层较薄的MLCs与其适用是因为他们的高强制性领域。其中一个关键是材料加工。要注意同类混合在泥浆的添加剂的参数。粘结剂分布在绿色陶瓷上，表面程度粗糙，尺寸精细，镍粉绿色，广告片堆积沉积等工艺技术发挥了至关重要的研究作用。任何一个这些事实，如果处理不当，会导致设备的失败。例如，提供5 m厚实的绿色板料roughess，给0.5m是必须的，以便与内在镍电极的一个光滑的接触面可以建立。这是一个电场非常重要的因素，避免浓度，波峰，其中充电电极的排放，加速，故障会导致短路或失败。常规板料或打印方法有有一个技术极限在1 m电介质附近; 为了进一步减少厚度，可以使用如，化学气相沉积，溅射薄膜技术，等离子喷涂等。

其他类型的电容器是使用稀薄的聚酯薄膜，使用薄的聚酯薄膜和聚丙烯薄膜作为电介质和元釉电容器的电极板纳入了真空蒸镀薄膜与金属，如铝。薄片可以是聚酯，聚丙烯或聚碳酸酯作。此外电容指定取决于介质使用，例如聚酯薄膜电容器，聚丙烯电容器，云母电容器，金属化聚酯薄膜电容器等。

4. 双层电容器

Electric/electrochemical双层电容器(EDLC)是独特的电子存贮设备，比常规电容器比电池可能存放更多能量和提供更大的功率密度。即EDLCs从太阳或风能填补电池和常规电容器之间的空白，允许对各种各样的力量和能量需要，备用电源的申请电子设备的，装载成水平，引擎混合车和引起的电存贮的开始或者加速度。 EDLC运作根据双重层数电容的原则在电荷在电极表面被积累的电极或电解质接口，并且安排相反充电离子在电解质边。

图2.一个EDLC细胞的电荷存储机制在懒惰和被充电的情况下

图2显示电荷存储机制在EDLC细胞和图3的显示一个典型的EDLC细胞的配置。有双层电容器的二种主要类型，如，由电荷存储机制分类： (1)电子双重层数电容器; (ii)电化学双层电容器或超级或者伪电容器。 EDLC在双重层数存放能量在电极或电解质接口，而超级电容器承受在电极和电解质之间的感应电流的反应在一个适当的潜在的窗口里。因而为细胞的建筑用于的电极材料前的主要是碳材料，当为后者时，电极材料包括过渡碳金属氧化物或混合物和金属氧化物或者聚合物。电解质可以是含水或非水的根据EDLC细胞的建筑方式。

图3.典型的配置EDLC细胞

有两个值得关注的大方向。一个是长远的发展目标：电力推进车辆，而另一种是：与最大能量内含的电源和最低的可能的大小和重量便携式的电子设备的迅速增长。

5.结论

据蒙大拿州市场调查，超级电容器正在成为一个在铁路车辆制动能量储存有前途的解决手段。铁路部门的技术发展也证明是预期以外的高度动态的：柴油电动车，接触网的城市轻轨的自由运作，启动柴油发动机，混合动力电动汽车，工业应用，电梯系统，托盘车等，时间发展范围预期是未来5到10年。主要发展目标将是：

?使用寿命长

?增加的额定电压的工作温度范围

?提高对能源和功率密度·

最近，混合动力汽车引入了市场，但它非常昂贵，超出了人的承受范围。短缺和矿物燃料的成本已经激发了以可行的替代技术为目的的商业活动。在这种情况下，EDLCs也是有用的从非传统能源产生的能量的存储。EDLC供应的服务中心设定的未来可能是设立双电层电容器，类似汽油供应。这个技术的发展的主要挫折可能是时间的问题，我们可能需等待10年才能享受丰硕成果。