新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 8 Language and society
Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会
知识点：
1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received
Pronunciation
2.Relatedness between language and society
3.*Varieties of language
4.*Halliday’s register theory
5.Degree of formality
6.Standard Dialect
7.# Pidgin and Creole
8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia
考核目标：
识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation
领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole
简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia
综合应用：Halliday’s register theory
一、定义
1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。
2.regional dialect地域方言：is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。
3.sociolect社会方言：has to do with separation brough about by different social comditions.社会方言是与由不同社会条件所造成的分离相关的。
4.idiolect个人方言：is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人方言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了又关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。
5.received pronunciation（RP）标准发音: in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century. 在十九世纪成为全国上层阶级的特点。
二、知识点
8.1 the scope of sociolinguistics社会与语言学的范畴
8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society语言和社会的相关性
There are many indications of the inter-relationshio between language and society.语言和社会之间的相互关系有许多种表现形式：
1）One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning ,it’s also used to establish and maintain social relationships.语言主要用来传达意义的同时，也用来确立和保持社会关系。(e.g.“Good morning！Hi! Hows your family? Nice day today,isn’t it?这些话语的运用之中”)
2）User of the same language in a sense all speak differently. Language，escipally the streucture of its lexicon, reflect both the physical and the social environments of a society.同一语言的使用者说话的方式都不尽相同。语言，尤其是他的词汇结构，反映了社会的物质和社会环境。（e.g.英语中只有一个词表示s“now”，但爱斯基摩人生活在多学的环境中需要对不同类型的雪作出区分的反映。）
3）As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the socienty in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic from ia entirely social.作为一种社会现象，预言师与其所在的社会结构紧密相关的，对于语言形式的评价也完全是社会性的。（所有的语言形式和口音，重要能完成期望中的发音那就是好的，e.g.英格兰英语发音与纽约英语发音不同。）
8.1.2speech community and speech variety言语社区和言语变体
1.speech community言语社区：a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes towards linguistic norms. 言语社区可以定义为一群实际上有机会彼此交往。不仅共有一门语言及其相关变体，而且还对语言标准有共同看法的一群人。(一个群体可以从教育背景，职业，性别，年龄或其成员的种族关系来与其社区的其他群体区分开来。)
2.speech variety（language variety）言语变体:refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.言语变体，又称之为语言变体，是由一位言者或一群言者所使用的任何具有区别性的言语形式。（这些不同的特征主要反映在发音、句法规则或词汇上。言语变体作为一种中性词语可以指标准语(standard language)、方言(dialect)、洋径浜语(pidgin)、克里奥尔语(creole)等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体等。）
社会语言学家尤其是对regional dialects地域变体（又称地域方言）、sociolects社会变体（又称社会方言）和registers功能变体（又称语域）感兴趣。言语变体无论其具有何种社会属性，在社会语言学家看来它们之间没有高低之分、优劣之别,因为它们都是体系的。
8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies社会语言学研究的两种方法
1.macro-sociolinguistics(sociology of language)宏观社会语言学（语言社会学）: we can look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations,i.e. a bird’s eye view of the language used in society.我们可以将社会看作一个整体，考察语言是如何在其中运用的，以及它是如何反映社会差异的，即对社会中所使用的语言的一个总观。
2.micro-sociolinguistics(sociolinguistics proper)微观社会语言学（严格意义的社会语言学）:look at society from the point of view of an individual menber within it, or a worm’s eye view of language in use.
8.2 varieties of language语言变体
一门语言的语言变体是该语言的一般概念的实际体现。
Dialects方言：varieties related to to the user.与使用者相关的变体。
Registers 语域：varieties related to to use.与用途相关的变体。
8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体
8.2.1.1 Regional dialect地域方言
地理障碍如高山，海洋，空间的距离等是造成语言地域变异的主要原因，除此之外，对自己地方语的“忠诚”以及对语言变化的抵触情绪也是形成地域方言的原因。虽然语言的地域变异反映在发音、词汇和句法上，但是语言地域性变异的最显著的特征是地域口音(accent)。
e.g. regional varieties of Chinese：Shanghai dialect，Sicuan dialect
regional varieties of English：British English, New Zeland English,
Australia English, South Afrian English
由于地域变体的存在给跨地区的交际造成障碍，语言规划(language planning)应运而生。语言规划是政府行为。政府常常选择某一特定的言语变体，对这种变体在语音、句法和词汇上进行语言标准化规划，并在社会中进行推广使用。
8.2.1.2 Sociolect社会方言
语言的社会变异产生了社会方言(sociolect)。使用同一地方方言的人在说话时,他们的地方方言中会有一些由于社会因素造成的言语特征，这些言语特征与地域差异没有关系。换句话说，不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等社会因素会导致不同的人在语言使用上的差异。生活在同一地区的人，虽然使用同一种地方方言，但是他们也会有意或无意选择符合他们社会身份的言语形式进行交际。
e.g. Black English in American与 Received Pronounciation(RP)的分别
低下层上层（高社会地位）
8.2.1.3 language and gender语言与性别
1）英语世界中，女性的地位意识通常比男性高，因此她们的语言比男性更接近标准变体woman are more standar。（e.g.女性的发音比男性要准确：使用-n代替-ng的频率比男性低。）
2）语调使用上也有不同：女性的语调范围倾向于更广一些。
3）言语的性别差异也表现在词汇使用上。女性倾向于使用诸如“lovely”, “sweet”, “divine”, “nice”, ”darling”, ”cute” , “adorable”, “charming”等形容词，使得这些词的使用几乎成了女性言语的标志，试比较：
Female; Oh darling, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
Male: Shit, you’ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.
4）在表示请求时，女性倾向于使用疑问句式，而不是祈使句，因为疑问句式听起来更委婉、婉转，因此更礼貌，例如：
a) Let me open the window, shall I?
b) Come to my office at eight o’clock tomorrow, will you?
8.2.1.4 language and age语言与年龄
老一代人所用的语言与年轻一代所使用的语言在某些方面有差异:
最显著的差异是词汇层lexical level（e.g.冰箱：老：icebox；年轻：fridge）
造成差别的根本原因：社会在变化，造成了两代人在社会观、价值判断等方面不同。（老人比较保守不太愿意融入新词）
8.2.1.5 idiolect个人方言
个人语言是个体言者的个人方言，结合了有关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。（一个人的语言使用不是始终如一的。操同一语言的两个人不可能在使用这一语言时是完全一样的。他们对同一语言或变体的使用会表现出许多个人的、独特的变异特征。当然这些变异都是特定语言体系所允许的范围内进行的。个人言语变异导致个人方言(idiolect或personal dialect)的产生。）
个人方言是说话人个人使用语言的习惯。每个人都有自己独特的表达风格。个人言语变异通常综合反映了诸如地域变异、社会变异、文体变异等方面因素的特征。在狭义上，个人方言包括说话者的交际方式以及说话时的音质、音调和节奏等因素。
8.2.1.6 Ethnic dialect种族方言
1黑人英语——一种主要由大部分非中产阶级的美国黑人所使用的方言。
少数民族方言是一种通常跨越地域界限的社会方言。黑人英语是一种民族变体，常被认为是“低劣的英语”。这种观点反映的是一种社会态度，没有语言根据。从语言学的角度来看，黑人英语与其他变体一样是受规则支配的，具有系统性。
黑人英语在语音、形态、句法和词汇系统方面都有着自身的特征:
1.就语音而言，最为显著的语音特征是对词尾的辅音连缀进行简化,如
Words Black English Standard English
Passed /pa:s/ /pa:st/
Past /pa:s/ /pa:st/
Desk /des/ /desk/
2．1）在句法上，黑人英语中的”be”动词经常被省略：
Black English Standard English
Mary interesting. Mary is interesting.
Socks mine. The socks are mine.
2)其次在标准英语中使用”there is”的地方，黑人英语中往往使用”it is”。此外黑人英语中存在双重否定结构，如:
He d on’t know nothing. (He doesn’t know anything.)
I ain’t afraid of no ghosts. (I’m not afraid of ghosts.)
(在黑人英语中这句话的意思是”He don’t do anything.”黑人英语中的双重否定结构也是体系的：当一个动词被否定时，句中的不定代词something, somebody, some变为nothing, nobody和none。 )
2.黑人英语的社会环境
黑人英语的形成是特定的社会环境、教育背景和经济状态所致，这与民族本身无关。并不是所有的黑人都说黑人英语，也不是说黑人英语的人都是黑人。说什么语言与人所处的社会环境有关，与肤色无关。
黑人英语与其他变体一样是一个民族身份的象征，是一个民族社会文化的象征。一个人的语言变体的改变意味着社会文化身份的改变和社会价值观念的改变。这也是黑人不愿意放弃他们语言模式的原因之一。
8.2.2 Register语域
1. Register（British linguist Halliday’s register theory英国语言学家H的语域理论）：“Language varies as its function varies; it differ in different situations.”The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.“语言随其功能而变；因其场合而异。”选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域。
2. three social variables that determine the register : 1)field of discourse语场, 2)tenor of discourse语旨, 3)mode of discourse语式
1) field of discourse语场：what is going on: to the area of operation of the language
activity.语言活动操作的领域，涉及交际的目的和主题事件。（语言活动的场合why,what）
2) tenor of discourse语旨：the role of relationship in the situation in question：who
the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.这些问题所涉及的场合中关系的作用:交际群体中的参与者是谁，他们彼此是何种关系。（who）
3) mode of discourse语式: the means of communication, it’s concerned with “how”
communication is carried out.distinction between speaking and writing.指交际的方式，它涉及到交际是如何展开的，语式的基本原理在于口头语和书面语之间的分别。
e.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collgege could be identified as:
Field: scientific (bilolgical) 科学性的（生物的）
Tenor: teacher----students (formal, polite) 教师学生(正式，礼貌)
Mode: oral (academic lecturing) 口头（学术讲座）
e.g. A is talking to a doctor about his illness
Field: medical 医学的
Tenor: doctor—patient 医生病人
Mode: oral 口头
8.2.3 Degree of formality正式程度
1.An American linguist Martin Joos, distinguishes five stage of formality namely: 1) intimate亲密的，2) casual随意的，3）consultative客气的，4）formal 正式的，5）frozen冷淡的。（e.g. p301中）
2. different style of the same language can be characterized through differences at three levels, namely, syntactic, lecical and phonological.同一语言的不同风格的特征可以通过句法、词汇和音位这三个层面之间的区别变现出来。（p301-302中）
3. the study made by sociolinguists of the ues of address forms in English 社会语言学家就英语称谓形式是使用所做的研究。（e.g. p302中）
8.3 standard dialect标准方言
The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taugh in educational institutions, including school setting where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.标准变体是一门语言中带有强制性、具有社会优越感的方言。它是政府和司法系统所采用的语言，被大众传媒所使用，在教育机构，包括把这门语言当作外语或第二语言传授的学校环境中所教授的语言。
标准方言的特征：
1. the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, uaually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.标准方言是基于该语言的一个经过选择的变体，它通常是被认为是国家政治和商业中心的地区地方语言。
2. the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it’s a variety imposed from above over tha range of regional dialects.标准方言并不是像其他地域方言那样由孩子自然习得的方言。它是一种强制性变体，是一种强加于地域方言范围之上的变体。
8.4 Pidgin and Creole洋泾浜语和克里奥耳语
A Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languagesand it is used by people who speak different language for restricted purposes such as trading.洋径浜语是操不同语言的人之间进行交际的媒介。它常是两种或两种以上不同的自然语言成分混杂而成的语言。洋径浜语与共同语(lingua franca)具有相似性，它们都是具有不同母语背景的人进行交际的媒介，常局限于一定的交际目的，如做生意。但是洋径浜语不为任何人的母语，而通用语却可以是母语。
作为不同语言背景的人之间的交际语，洋径浜语具有两种或两种以上的语言语法特征，通常高地位语言的影响表现在词汇上，低地位语言的影响主要在语音和句法上。洋径浜语词汇量少，没有屈折词素的变化，发音有简化趋势。通常也没有”be”动词。在它的句法体系和词汇体系的使用中，过度概括是常见现象。
洋径浜语本身与其他语言一样是体系的，是受规则支配的。洋径浜语有着严格的词序以弥补因没有格词尾的变化所带来的不足。
When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.当洋径浜语作为第一语言或母语被儿童习得，洋径浜语便成为克里奥尔语。克里奥尔语在词汇，语法以及交际功能上进行一系列的扩展。作为充分发展的语言，其语言规则的复杂性与其它语言在本质上没有区别。克里奥尔语也可以获得标准语的地位。
8.5 Bilingualism and diglossia双语现象和双语
1.bilingualism双语现象：in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.在有些语言社区中，两种语言同时并存，并起着不同的作用；当场景发生改变时，语言转换也就出现了。这样就构成了双语现象。
Rubin(1986) defines five major variables to be considered in predicting language usage in Paraguay 在对巴拉圭地区语言用法的预测中定义了五种需要考虑的主要变量:
1）location of the interaction交际的所在地
2）formality-informality of the interaction交际的正式-非正式度
3）degree of intimacy of the speakers言者间的亲密度
4）degree of seriousness of the discourse言谈的严肃性
5）sex of the participants参与者的性别
双语现象指个人或社区群体可以同时使用两种标准语言的现象。一个言语社区不能称之为双语社区，除非在这个社区中有相当数量的人通常使用两种语言。加拿大是典型的双语国家，在加拿大，英语和法语都是官方语。
完美的双语现象比较罕见。绝大多数具有双语能力的人只是近乎具有完美的双语能力，能够在较为广阔的交际领域中熟练使用两种语言进行交际。
大多数双语社区都有一个共同点，即两种语言有着较为明确的功能分配。如一种语言可能在家庭语场中使用，即在家庭谈论有关家庭的话题；而另一种语言却可能在教育语场中使用。
2. diglossia双言现象: first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.1959年提出的，用来指双语现象类似的社会语言学情形，但它们不是作为两种不同的语言，而是作为在双语环境中整个社区之中同意语言的两种同时并存的变体，并各自起着一定的作用。
双言现象(diglossia)是Ferguson于1959年提出的。它指并存于同一语言社区的同一语言的两种不同的变体，这两种变体各有其自己的社会功能，在自己特定的交际场合中使用。其中一种变体被视为（1）the high variety(H) 高功能（层次）变体，通常用于正式场合和书面语，如：用于政府机关、大众传媒、教育部门、宗教领域等；另一种为(2)low variety(L)低功能变体，通常是口语式，用于非正式场合，如：家庭成员或朋友之间的交谈，也被高身分者用以对低身分者发布指示等。
在中国的历史上曾经也存在双言现象，汉语的两种变体文言文与白话文各自有着自己的社会功能。前者作为高功能变体使用，后者作为低功能变体使用。
双言现象也可以涉及不具有亲缘关系的两种语言。例如，在巴拉圭，西班牙语作为高功能变体使用，而当地的瓜拉尼语是低功能变体。
（p305-306中）
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版整理
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.360docs.net/doc/1116807393.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.360docs.net/doc/1116807393.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.360docs.net/doc/1116807393.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
陈新仁《英语语言学实用教程》章节题库(含名校考研真题)-第8~11章【圣才出品】
第8章英语语言的应用（I） I. Fill in the blanks. 1. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the _____ of, or the _____the utterance. （人大2004研） 【答案】consequence, change brought about by 【解析】言外行为指说话的效果。 2. When a teacher says “The exam this year is going to be really difficult”, the sentence would have an _____force. （清华2001研，清华2000研） 【答案】illocutionary 【解析】言外行为，表达说话人的意图。 3. _____ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. 【答案】Performatives 【解析】施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假。 II. Multiple Choices. 1. The speech act theory was developed by _____.（对外经贸2006研) A. John Searle B. John Austin
C. Levinson D. G. Leech 【答案】B 【解析】言语行为理论是哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答”用语言干什么”这个问题。 2. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest. (Focus on the type of illocutionary act) （南京大学2007研） A. threaten B. advise C. beseech D. urge 【答案】A 【解析】A为命令性言语行为，而其他三项为指示性言语行为。 3. _____ is using a sentence to perform a function. （西安外国语学院2006研） A. A perlocutionary act B. An illocutionary act C. A locutionary act D. Speech act 【答案】D 【解析】约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出言语行为理论, 此理论对语言交际的
“英语”语言学概论第六章笔记
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
英语语言学概论大纲(DOC)
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案 Chapter 1 Introduction 1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. 2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? 答：The major branches of linguistics are: (1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication; (2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication; (3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words; (4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;
最新新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter-Three-Morphology
Chapter Three Morphology形态学 一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。 二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、 形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。
英语语言学笔记讲解
第一章 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics. Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures https://www.360docs.net/doc/1116807393.html,nguage 1.1Why study language?为什么学习语言 A tool for communication交流的工具 An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知. 1.2What is language?什么是语言 1.2.1different senses of language 语言的不同意义 1. what a person says( concrete act of speech) a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language an abstract system 2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”: a. human speech 人类的言语 b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力 c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声 音及这些声音互相结合的系统 d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达 3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交 流的一种方式. Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言 是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文 化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类 区别于动物. 1.2.2definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. What is communication? A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener). A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×) Why do we say language is arbitrary? Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is
27037 本科自考英语语言学概论精心整理 Chapter 4 Phonology
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章期末复习.doc
Chapter one Introduction 1.1什么是语言学 丄定义 语言学Linguistics Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scientific study of la nguage. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学分支必考P2 普通语言学General Linguistics The study of Ianguage as a whole is often called General linguistics. The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （咅位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） The study of mea ning in con text of use is called pragmatics ?（语用学） 1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics 成对的概念辨析差异必考P3 （1）Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive? The task of linguists is supposed to describe the Ianguage people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not. 规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for "correct" behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the Ianguage people actually use? （2）Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时 The description of a Ianguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a lang uage as it cha nges through time is a diachr onic study .In modern linguistics, syn chr onic study is more important? 历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time? a diachronic study of Ianguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given Ianguage at a given time. （3）Speech and writing 口头语与书面语
简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断