第二语言习得概论 考研复习
★1. SLA (Second language acquisition)is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a c l a s s r o o m. ★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)
Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars.
Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.
3. Factors affecting SLA
Social factors (external factors)
Learner factors (internal factors)
Social factors (external factors)
Social context
Language policy and the attitude of the public sector;
Social demand
With the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated people
Learner factors (internal factors)
Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy
4.Behaviorist learning theory
Behaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).
It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.
When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.
5. The causes of errors according to behaviorism
Differences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.
Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result.
Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning.
The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.
6. Structuralism
Language was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns) 7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?
Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.
8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.
According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these
differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.
9.difference vs difficulty
“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.
10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)
the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).
It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.
11. Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or the negative transfer of one’s mother tongue.
Intralingual error: ①deviated forms in learner language that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.
②confusion of L2 rules
12. Factors causing errors
1. Language transfer
2. Overgeneralization
3. Learner differences
3. Strategies in L2 learning
5. Strategies of L2 communication
e.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.
13. Types of learner strategy
Learning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:
Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.
14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)
(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective
(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.
15. Meta-cognitive strategies
Meta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.
16. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning
or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.
Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing
17. Individual learner variables
Personal factors:
group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniques
General factors:
age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality
18. Motivation
Integrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify
with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.
Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional.
Resultative motivation:因果性动机 Learners’ motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.
Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest. Motivation as a multi-componential construct:
Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudes
Task motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.
★19. Definition –interlanguage
Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)
It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.
It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.
★20.Definition of fossilization
Fossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.
21. Classification of fossilization
Temporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.
Permanent fossilization
This means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.
22. Causes of fossilization
Internal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition device
External: Communicative pressure
Lack of learning opportunities
Feedback:
positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;
(e.g. “Oh,I see”)
negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.
(e.g. “I don’t understand you” )
★23. Definition of UG
Cook(1985) summarizing the Chomskyan position, defines ‘universal grammar’ as ‘the properties inherent in the human mind’. Universal grammar consists of a set of general principles that apply to all language rather than a set of particular rules.
24. Markedness
Markedness refers to the idea that some linguistic structures are ‘special’ or ‘less natural’ or ‘less basic’ than others.
Linguists working in the Chomskyan school suggest that linguistic
rules can either be part of the core grammar (i.e. the universal rules) or be part of the periphery.
Core rules are considered to be unmarked and therefore easily acquired.
Periphery roles are considered to be and therefore different to learn.
25.Krashen’s Monitor Model
Krashen’s monitor model mainly consists of the following five hypothses:
(1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:
there are two kinds of ways of learning a second language ,i.e., acquisition and learning.
(2) Natural Order Hypothesis:
SLA follows a universal route that is not influenced by factors such as the learners’ first language, age, and the context (classroom or natural setting).
Implications:
Errors are developmental and are a natural byproduct of learning –tolerate them.
Allow learners to make errors and do not correct them
(3) The Input Hypothesis c
It laims a move along the developmental continuum by receiving comprehensible input.
We acquire, only when we understand the structure that is “a little
beyond” where we are now
Comprehensible input is defined as L2 input just beyond the Learner’s current L2 competence, in terms of its syntactic complexity. If a learner’s current competence is i then comprehensible input is i+1. Input which is either too simple (i) or too complex (i+2/3/4…) will not be useful for acquisition.
(4) The affective filter hypothesis
SLA is affected by factors like Motivation, Self-confidence,Anxiety and so on.
Learners who suffer from anxiety or lack of motivation or negative attitude somehow switch off their comprehension mechanisms and so even if they are provided comprehensible input, they will not be able to process the input. Therefore a low affective filter is important. (5) Monitor hypothesis
Both language learners and native speakers typically try to correct any errors in what they have just said. This is referred to as monitoring.
Krashen uses the term Monitoring (with a big M) to refer to the way the learner used learnt knowledge to improve utterances produced by means of acquired knowledge.
26. language transfer
Language transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that
has been previously( and perhaps imperfectly ) acquired.
★27. LAD (language acquisition device)
The LAD is a system of principles that children are born with that helps them learn language, and accounts for the order in which children learn structures, and the mistakes they make as they learn.
★28. critical age period hypothesis
It claims that there a period when language acquisition can take place naturally and effortlessly, but after a certain age the brain is no longer able to process language input in this. Researchers differ over when the critical period comes to an end.
★29. field independent vs. field independent
Learners are different in the ways of receiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling information.
Field dependents operate holistically (i.e. they see the field as a whole),
Whereas field independents operate analytically (i.e. they see the field in terms of its component parts).
★30. input vs. intake
Input refers to the language learners are exposed to.It serves as the data which learners must use to determine the rules of the target language.
However, not all available input is processed by the learner, either
because some of it is not understood or because some of it is not attended to.
That part of input that is processed, assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system is referred to as intake.
★31.attitudes vs. aptitude vs. intelligence
Attitudes refer to the learner’s beliefs about factors such as the target language culture, their own culture, their teacher and the learning tasks they are given.
Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a second language.
Intelligence refers to the general ability to master academic skills.
32. competence vs. performance
When learners acquire a L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a system. This constitutes their competence.
The actual use of this system to comprehend and produce utterances is referred to as performance.
33. Overgeneralization
It refers to the extension of some general rule to items not covered by this rule in the target language.
34. foreigner talk vs. teacher talk
When native speakers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These
adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.
When teachers address learners, they make adjustments in both language form and language function to facilitate understanding. These adjustments are referred to as foreigner talk.
35. formulaic speech vs. patterns
Formulaic speech consists of expressions which are learned as unanalysable wholes and employed in particular occasions.
Patterns are one type of formulaic speech. They are unanalysable units which have one or more open slots, e.g. ‘Can I have a —’。
36. interference
According to the behaviorist learning theory, old habits get in the way of learning new habits. Thus in SLA, the patterns of the learners’mother tongue get in the way of learning the patterns of the L2. This is referred to as interference.
37. order/sequence/route of development
Order of development refers to the order in which specific grammatical features are acquired in SLA. These vary according to such factors as the learner’s L1 background and other factors.
Sequence of development refers to the overall profile of development of SLA which is held to be universal and thus, not subject to variation as a result of L1 background and other factors.
Route of development refers to those transitional states the learners
have to go through in the process of SLA. It is intended to be neutral regarding whether it is universal or subject to variation.
38. Universal Hypothesis
The universal hypothesis states
that language acquisition is governed by the way
in which natural languages are organized.
That is, certain universal linguistic properties influence the order in which the rules of a specific language are acquired.
According to the universal hypothesis, it is linguistic rather than general cognitive factors that determine acquisition.