外语教师教育研究综述

外语教师教育研究综述

Teacher Education

外语教师教育简介:

教师教育(职前和在职教育)多年来主要沿袭传统和基于一般经验，缺乏系统的理论和实证研究作为基础(Carter 1990 ; Freeman 1996)。普通教育1980s (Shulman 1987) 倡导“基于研究的教师教育”始于20世纪80年代中期, 而在外语或二语(以下统称外语)教育领域则在90年代以后。国内外语界近年来也开始重视教师教育与发展研究。

（Cambridge,P13）

1990s-refinging the scope of second language teacher education: Richards and Nunan’s(1990) Second Language Teacher Education

SLTE included not simply what teachers need to learn, but increasingly how they would learn it. ..there were professional learning processes in which language teachers engaged(Freeman and Richards 1996;Woods 1996). The nature of knowledge base of SLTE (Freeman and Johnson 1998) Presently,Socio-professional identity

外语教师教育背景：

1)课程改革的现实需求

2)教师专业化运动的推动

3)新兴社科理论的影响：建构主义对知识传授型的教师教育提出挑战;信息加工

理论引发了对教师思维过程和对比专家 - 新教师的研究(Clark & Peterson 1986);实践认识论(Schon 1983)、社会文化理论及活动理论(Vy2gotsky 1978)

等新视角刺激了教师学习与发展的新探索;社会批判及后现代思潮使人们重新审视教师的生命本质和社会角色(如 Wu 2002);而解释 - 现象学方法论则深刻影响了以“质”为特征的教师教育研究。

Teacher training, teacher education, teacher development, teacher preparation:professional development, continuing professional development (CPD) and staff development:

…it places self-development at the centre of a de fin ition of language teacher development. Self-direction is as important in teacher development as it is in language learning (see Nunan & Lamb 1996) Brockett & Hiemstra (1991: 29)defi n e self-direction as the ’characteristics of an individual that predispose one toward taking primary responsibility for personal learning endeavours’.

The t erm ‘train’ has unfortunate collocations. As Edge (2003a: 7) says ‘to train is to instill habits or skills, and the word collocates just as happily with dogs and seals as with teachers’. The negative connotation of the term training has led to greater adoption of the term ‘teacher preparation’.

Continuing Professional development(Barduhn 2002) is career orientated and has a narrower, more instrumental and utilitarian remit. Arguably, teacher development is more inclusive of personal and moral dimensions.

Pettis (2002), Johnston (2003) and Miller (2004) present conscious engagement with teacher development as an individual moral commitment.

Pre-service training or initial teacher education has the function of giving guidance to possible pedagogic choices, teaching strategies, L2 methods, course design and coursebook materials. This can provide stability and security for new teachers and is ‘a necessary stage of development for professionals’(Clarke 1982: 447).

Language teacher development is

? a bottom–up process and as such can be contrasted with top–down staff

development programmes;

?values the insider view rather than the outsider view;

?is independent of the organization but often functioning more

successfully with its support and recognition;

?is a continuing process of becoming and can never be finished;

?is a process of articulating an inner world of conscious choices made

in response to the outer world of the teaching context;

?is wider than professional development and includes personal, moral

and value dimensions;

?can be encouraged and integrated in both training and education

programmes

外语教师教育的概念重构：

澄清教学概念:教学是复杂的认知活动

重构教师的知识基础:个人实践知识走向合法化

理解教师学习的本质和教师教育的作用

教师决策研究(teacher decision-making)

教师知识/观念研究

教师学习/发展的研究

趋势：

基于新概念的、以教师为中心的教师教育/专业发展方案正在形成 (如 Roberts 1998) ;新的教师发展策略层出不穷 ,如反思性教学(Farrell 1999) 、合作行动研究(Burns 1999) 、探究性实践(Allwright 2003) 、案例教学(Reichelt 2000) 、融学科知识与教学知识发展于一体(韩刚 ,？)。

The emergence of such issues as reflective teaching and critical pedagogy for example arose from within the profession largely as a result of self-imposed initiatives. At the same time the development of SLTE has also been impacted by external pressures, for example by globalization and the need for English as a language of international trade and communication, which has brought with it the demand by national educational authorities for new language teaching policies, for greater

central control over teaching and teacher education, and for standards and other forms of accountability.

The relationship between practical teaching skills and academic knowledge and their representation in SLTE programs has generated a debate ever since, although as we will see in what follows is now part of the discussion of a much wider range of issues. In the 1990s the practice versus theory distinction was sometimes resolved by distinguishing “teacher training”from “teacher development”, the former being identified with entry-level teaching skills linked to a specific teaching context, and the latter to the longer-term development of the individual teacher over time. Training involved the development of a repertoire of teaching skills, acquired through observing experienced teachers and practice-teaching in a controlled setting, e.g. through micro-teaching or peer-teaching. Good teaching was seen as the mastery of a set of skills or competencies. Qualifications in teacher training such as the CELTA (Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults) were typically offered by teacher training colleges or by organizations such as the British Council. Teacher development on the other hand meant mastering the discipline of applied linguistics. Qualifications in teacher development, typically the MA degree, were offered by universities, where the practical skills of language teaching were often undervalued.

By the present time the contrast between training and development has been replaced by a reconsideration of the nature of teacher learning, which is viewed as a form of socialization into the professional thinking and practices of a community of practice. SLTE is now also influenced by perspectives drawn from sociocultural theory(Lantolf 2000) and the field of teacher cognition (Borg, 2006). The knowledge base of teaching has also been re-examined with a questioning of the traditional positioning of the language-based disciplines as the major foundation for SLTE (e.g. linguistics, phonetics, second language acquisition) (Freeman 2002). At the same time it has also been affected by external factors -by the need to respond to the status of English as an international language and the demand worldwide for a practical command of English language skills. --The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education.PDF，P1-3

---Language Teacher Education-an Integrated Programme for EFL Teaching Training.PDF, P:35

教师专业化发展：

The professionalism of English teaching is seen in the growth industry devoted to providing language teachers with professional training and qualifications, in continuous attempts to develop standards for English language teaching and for English language teachers, to the proliferation of professional journals and teacher magazines, conferences and professional organizations, to attempts in many places to require non-native speaker English teachers to demonstrate their level of proficiency in English as a component of certification, to the demand for professional qualifications for native-speaker teachers, and to the greater level of sophisticated knowledge of language teaching required of English teachers. Becoming an English language teacher means becoming part of a worldwide community of professionals with shared goals, values, discourse,and practices but one with a self-critical view of its own practices and a commitment to a transformative approach to its own role.

--The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education.PDF

教师知识：

-Shulman（1987）的分析性框架

（1）学科知识（subject content knowledge）；（2）一般性教学知识（general pedagogical knowledge）；（3）课程知识（curriculum knowledge）；（4）学科教学知识(pedagogical content knowledge, PCK)；（5）学习者知识（knowledge of learners and their characteristics）；（6）教育环境知识（knowledge of

educational contexts ）；（7）教育目的和目标、价值及其哲学和历史基础

-Richards (1998)的外语教师知识

（1）教学理论知识；（2）课堂教学技能和课堂管理；（3）目的语交际技能/能力；（4）学科知识；（5）教学推理（reasoning ）和决策能力；（6）环境知识

(J. C. Richards. 1998. Beyond Training. CUP.)

国外学者（REYNOLDS，1989；GROSSMAN，1990），国内学者（辛涛、申继亮、林崇德等）从20世纪90年代开始关注教师专业知识构成。

---参考阅读：教师专业知识结构分析研究.pdf

教师个人知识研究

Shulman提出教师知识模式是出于一种对教师知识的“由外而内”（outside-in）的视角：教师需要怎样的知识基础、教师教育应该提供哪些知识, Elbaz（1983）开始的教师个人实践知识研究则采取了“由内而外”（inside-out）的视角：教师实际拥有哪些知识，他们在实践中如何使用这些知识。

Elbaz（1983）最早开展教师实践知识的案例研究。

Connelly and Clandinin(1984)开启了对教师知识的叙事研究，重视教师对日常教学和生活事件的个人陈述与解释，他们对几名教师进行数年的人种志观察和叙事化探究，在与教师共同建构的故事中了解他们的个人实践知识，并发现了其中的道德情感成分

What is clear is that knowledge is not in any simple way transferred from educators and trainees to teachers (Richards 1998).

Knowledge is at least partly constructed through engagement with experience, re fl ection and collaboration (Roberts 1998).

Types of teacher knowledge:

content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, curriculum and materials knowledge, knowledge about second language acquisition (SLA) and learners, and knowledge about context. It would also include personal knowledge (Clandinin & Connelly 1987), practical knowledge (Golombek 1998), experiential knowledge (Wallace 1991), local knowledge (Allwright 2003) and usable knowledge (Lageman 2002). There are also related constructs such as BAK (Woods 1996), which considers the interplay between beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge.

Two kinds of knowledge-knowledge about and knowledge how:

“Knowledge about” or “content knowledge” provides what has come to be the established core curriculum of SLTE programs, particularly at the graduate level, where course work on topics such as language analysis, discourse analysis, phonology, curriculum development, and methodology

is standard.

Implicit knowledge covers a wide range of terms that have been used in the literature to refer to the beliefs, theories, and knowledge that underlie teachers’practical actions (terms such as “principles”, “practitioner knowledge”, “personal theories”,“maxims”) (Richards 1996,Tsang 2004). Central to knowledge how are concepts such as pedagogical content knowledge (the capacity to transform content into accessible and learnable forms) and practical knowledge, all of which refer to the knowledge and thinking that teachers make use of in facilitating learning in their classrooms and which belong to a third strand that has often been missing from formulations of the core content of SLTE --namely the nature of teaching itself. Freeman and others have emphasized that the knowledge-base of SLTE must be expanded to include the processes of teaching and teacher-learning and the beliefs, theories and knowledge which informs teaching. Rather than the MA course being a survey of issues in applied linguistics drawing from the traditional disciplinary sources, course work in areas such as reflective teaching, classroom research, and action research now form parts of the core curriculum in many TESOL programs and seek to expand the traditional knowledge base of language teaching.

教师学习和教师知识 1975-；80-90s; 90-2000

The nature of teacher-learning：

Nunan (1995:55) describes this learner-centered view. “In the final analysis…it is the learner who must remain at the centre of the processes, for no matter how much energy and effort we expend, it is the learner who has to do the learning”.

A focus on teacher-learning as a field of inquiry however seeks to examine the mental processes involved in teacher-learning and acknowledges the “situated” and the social nature of learning (Lave and Wenger 1991). From this perspective, learning takes place in a context and evolves through the interaction and participation of the participants in that context. Teacher-learning is not viewed as translating knowledge and theories into practice but as constructing new knowledge and theory through participating in specific social contexts and engaging in particular types of activities and processes.

--The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education.PDF

---参考：teacher education review.pdf

The Role of context in teacher learning

The Role of Teacher Cognition

A Focus on Teacher Identity

A Rethinking of Teaching Methods and Strategies

A Need for Accountability

Critical Language teacher Education

参考：The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Teacher Education.PDF， P：1-8教师信念Teacher Beliefs

Pajares (1992) once pointed out teachers’ beliefs are teachers’ attitudes about education, schooling, teaching, learning, and students. They also represent “the rich storage of knowledge that teachers have that affects their planning and their interactive thoughts and decisions” (Clark & Peterson, 1986, p. 281).

Nisbett and Ross (1980) proposed that beliefs are a kind of knowledge structure.Richardson (1996) defined beliefs as the conceptions held by a person.They are “psyc hologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true” (p. 103). Beliefs are important in learning because they act as filters on incoming stimuli and information (Gess-Neusome, 1999; Shymansky, 1992).

It is generally believed that teacher beliefs are made up of tacitly held assumptions and perceptions about teaching and learning (Kagan, 1992).

Teachers’ beliefs characterize three basic assumptions (Johnson, 1994): (1) they influence perception and judgment. (2) They play a role in how information on teaching is transformed into classroom practices，and (3) Understanding teachers’ beliefs are vital to improving teaching practices and teacher education programs. Fang (1996) proposed similar characteristics of beliefs that will help shed light on this research. He described beliefs as mental constructs that: (1) influence how information is perceived, (2) guide teacher behavior, (3) are constrained by institutional and classroom realities, (4) are influenced by teachers’ professional subcultures, and (5) are shaped by both personal and professional experiences.

---中學英語教師對文法教學的信念及教學實踐之個案研究.pdf

In trying to understand how teachers deal with these dimensions of teaching, it is necessary to examine the beliefs and thinking processes which underlie teachers' classroom actions. This view of teaching involves a cognitive, an affective, and a behavioral dimension (Clark and Peterson 1986; Lynch 1989).

Belief systems are dynamic and permeable mental structures (Muijs & Reynolds, 2001).Teachers’ belief systems, including their attitudes, values, expectations, theories, and assumptions about teaching and learning, are considered a primary source of teachers’classroom practices. These beliefs are usually guided by a number of factors: their own experience as learners in classrooms, prior teaching experience, classroom observations they were exposed to, and their previous training courses at school (Richards, 1998).

Teachers' belief systems are founded on the goals, values, and beliefs teachers hold in relation to the content and process of teaching, and their understanding of the systems in which they work and their roles within it. These beliefs and values serve as the background to much of the teachers' decision making and action, and hence constitute what has been termed the "culture of teaching."

Teaching cultures are embodied in the work-related beliefs and knowledge teachers share - beliefs about appropriate ways of acting on the job and rewarding aspects of teaching, and knowledge that enables teachers to do their work. (Feiman-Nemser and Floden 1986: 508)

The study of teacher-thinking addresses questions such as the following: ? What do teachers believe about teaching and learning?

? How is their knowledge organized?

? What are the sources of teachers' beliefs?

? How do teachers' beliefs influence their teaching?

The source of teachers' beliefs:

Richardson(1996)指出，教师信念建立的来源有三方面，分别为：（一）

教师个人的生活经验；（二）教师受教期间的学校教育和学习经验；（三）

教师的教育专业知识，这些均会影响教师教学信念的建立。

Research on teachers' belief systems suggests that they are derived from

a number of different sources (Kindsvatter, Willen, and Ishler 1988).

1.Their own experience as language learners.

2.Experience of what works best.

3.Established practice.

4.Personality factors.

https://www.360docs.net/doc/2117541834.html,cationally based or research-based principles.

6.Principles derived from an approach or method.

Tabachnick 等人(1982)发展出「教师信念量表」(Teacher Belief Inventory-TBI)，共区分为六个层面，其内容层面与取向为：

（一）教师的角色（teacher role）：取向为(被动的(passive)---主动的(active) )。

（二）师生的关系（teacher-pupil relationship）：取向为「监管的(custodial)---人文的(humanistic)」。

（三）知识和课程（knowledge and curriculum）：取向为「强结构的(strong frame)---弱结构的(weak frame)」。

（四）学生的差异（student diversity）：取向为「消极的(negative)-积极的(positive)」。

（五）小区在学校中的角色（the role of the community in school）：取向为「被动的(passive)---主动的(active)」。

（六）学校在社会中的角色（the role of the school in society）：取向为「复制的(reproductive)---转化的(transformative)」。

Beliefs about English:

Beliefs about learning:

Teachers' beliefs about learning may be based on their training, their teaching experience, or may go back to their own experience as language learners (Freeman 1992a).

Brindley (1984) points out that teachers who favor a "learner-centered" view of learning, such as that which underlies many current methodologies in language teaching, would probably describe their assumptions in terms such as the following:

? Learning consists of acquiring organizing principles through encountering experience.

? The teacher is a resource person who provides language input for the learner to work on.

? Language data is to be found everywhere - in the community and in the media as well as in textbooks.

? It is the role of the teacher to assist learners to become self-directed by providing access to language data through such activities as active listening, role play and interaction with native speakers.

? For learners, learning a language consists of forming hypotheses about the language input to which they will be exposed, these hypotheses being constantly modified in the direction of the target model.

Beliefs about teaching:

Teaching is a very personal activity, and it is not surprising that individual teachers bring to teaching very different beliefs and assumptions about what constitutes effective teaching.

Richards et al. (1991), in their study of teachers' beliefs, found that Hong Kong teachers of English believed their primary role in the classroom was to: (1) provide useful learning experiences, (2) provide a model of correct language use, (3) answer learners' questions, and (4) correct learners' errors. They believed their main role as an English teacher was to (1) help students discover effective approaches to learning, (2) pass on knowledge and skills to their pupils, and (3) adapt teaching approaches to match their students' needs. The kinds of learners they felt did best in their classes were: (1) those who were motivated, (2) those who were active and spoke out, (3) those who were not afraid of making mistakes, and (4) those who could work individually without the teacher's help.

Johnson (1992a) investigated the beliefs that thirty ESL teachers held about second language teaching and found that they had three different approaches: a skills-based approach (which focuses on the discrete skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing); a rule-based approach (which emphasizes the importance of grammatical rules and a conscious understanding of the language system); and a function-based approach

(which focuses on interactive communication and cooperative learning, and the ability to function in "real" social situations).

Beliefs about the program and the curriculum

Australian Migrant Education Program, which has been described as aiming to implement the following beliefs about curriculum processes: decentralized curriculum planning

a needs-based curriculum

a range of teaching methodologies

learner-based classrooms

autonomous learning

authentic materials

multiculturalism

(Butler and Bartlett 1986) Within a program or school, teachers' views on such things as lesson planning, the use of objectives, and assessment may lead to quite different classroom practices.

Beliefs about language teaching as a profession

Professionalism is a recurring concern of language teachers and language teaching organizations (Pennington 1991).

The Factors That Influence Beliefs and Practices

?The first factor involves teachers’ educational background.

?The second factor conc erns teachers’ teaching and learning

experiences, which have the greatest impact on the development of beliefs (Knowles, 1990; Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992; Richardson, 1996).

?The third factor entails teachers’ professional subcultures.

---Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms (Cambridge Language Education)-Jack C. Richards.pdf

Read also：Teachers’Beliefs About Teaching English to elementary school children.PDF

The Handbook of Applied Linguistics.PDF P:662→

Teachers’Beliefs About Teaching Engli sh to elementary school children.PDF

A Study of Chinese College English Teachers in China- Their Beliefs and Conceptual Change-Ph.D.PDF

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[1]刘学惠, 外语教师教育研究综述.pdf

[2]外语教师专业发展探究吴一安.pdf

[3]外语教师教育与专业发展研究综述.pdf

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Jack C Richards.PDF

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[10]Approaches to Second Foreign Language Teacher Education.PDF

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[12]Reforming Teacher Education-sth old sth new.PDF

[13]Teachers' Beliefs and Teaching Beliefs.PDF

[14]Teachers’Beliefs About Teaching English to elementary school

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[15]中學英語教師對文法教學的信念及教學實踐之個案研究.pdf

[16]教师专业知识结构分析研究.pdf

[17]外语教学研究的范式转换：从教学走向教师-吴宗杰

[18]外语教师发展的研究范式-吴宗杰 .pdf