英文文献 科技类 原文及翻译 64

英文文献 科技类 原文及翻译 64
英文文献 科技类 原文及翻译 64

13.3.3 C类放大器

在C类功率放大器中,栅的偏压设成使晶体管在小于一半的时间内导通。因此,漏极电流是由周期性的一串脉冲构成的。传统上用正弦的上面部分来近似这些脉冲以便于进行直接分析②。

特别是我们假设漏极电流具有如下的形式:

式中,偏置值I DC类似于线性放大器中的偏置电流,它对于C类放大器实际上是负值。自然,整个漏极电流i D心总是为正或为零。也就是说,漏极电流在晶体管导通时是一段正弦波,而在晶体管截止时为零。我们继续假设晶体管在任何时候的工作情况都像是一个电流源(高输出阻抗)③。

由于我们仍然有一个高Q值的输出振荡回路,所以在负载两端的电压基本上保持为正弦,因此漏极电压和漏极电流如图13.4所示。在以下的推导中,不必担心能否重复所有的这些细节。正如我们将要看到的,我们如何设计这样的放大器与这些公式本身的含义有显著的不同,所以重点要放在所得到的一般结论而不是一些具体细节上。

我们从求解漏极电流不为零时总的导通角开始。为了简化得到这一答案所需要的步骤,我们首先用余弦而不是正弦来重新写出漏极电流的表达式:

显然,这样做没有任何改变,因为时间原点总是任选的。在经过这样的修改之后,电流脉冲就如图13.5所示。

使电流等于零并求出总的导通角2中得到:

我们现在可以计算平均漏极电流为:

在用I DC的表达式替换后得到:

我们将很快用这个表达式来推导效率作为导通角函数的公式。

我们需要的另一个量是传送到负载的功率的一般表达式。正如与B类放大器一样由于高Q值的振荡回路而被简化,所以我们只需要计算傅里叶级数中的基波项:

利用我们通过负载的基波电流的表达式,我们可以很容易地推导出最大输出电压摆幅的公式:

上式允许我们求解用V DD表示的电流irf:

峰值漏极电流为irf与偏置项的和为:

上式可简化为:

对于固定的输出电压,当脉冲宽度减小至零时,峰值漏极电流接近无穷大。

利用我们刚刚推导的公式可以很容易地计算出漏极效率为:

当导通角缩小至零时,效率接近100%。虽然这看起来很有希望,但输出功率也同时趋向于零,这是因为在漏极电流越来越窄的长条波形中基波分量也在缩小,而且从峰值漏极电流的公式中很清楚地看出,随着导通角接近于零,C类放大器归一化的功率传递能力也接近于零。所有这些综合考虑使得实际上只得到小于100%的效率,因为除了高效率之外我们一般还希望有一个合理数量的输出功率。

在进行了前面的推导之后,我们也许会很失望,即这些推导在设计C类功率放大器的实际过程中一般不会用得很多。一个理由是对栅偏压几乎没有几种方便的选择,但零伏是一种特别方便的选择。因此栅驱动信号分量要选择得足够大从而能产生所希望的输出功率,所以导通角和效率通常不是直接的设计参数,而只是选择零偏压及输出功率设计的结果。

另一个理由是所做的假设(例如正弦电流尖峰脉冲,晶体管的电流源特性)并不总能充分地满足以使我们可以在定量上相信这些公式。同样,在进行推导中最主要的优点是建立起对设计非常有用的某些一般的直观感觉——主要是效率可以很高,但这是以减少功率传递能力、增益和线性度为代价的。

13.3.4 AB类放大器

我们已经看到A类放大器在100%的时间里导通,B类放大器在50%的时间里导通,而C类放大器则在0和50%之间的某段时间内导通。AB类放大器,正如从它的名字可以联想到的,是在一个周期的50%和100%之间的某段时间内导通,这取决于所选择的偏置大小。结果它的效率和线性度在A类和B类放大器之间。这一折中常常是令人满意的,这从这类功率放大器的使用非常普遍就可以看出。

我们不必单独推导这一放大器的公式,因为C类放大器的公式也可以在这里应用(这些公式也包括A类和B类的情形),惟一的差别就是偏置电流是正值而不是负值。

13.4 D类放大器

至今介绍的功率放大器采用了有源器件作为控制电流源。另一种方法是采用器件作为开关,其理由是,开关在理想上不消牦任何功率,因为或者开关两端的电压为零,或者通过它的电流为零。因而开关的V-I乘积总是为零,所以晶体管不消耗任何功率并且其效率必定为100%。

利用这一想法的一类放大器是D类放大器。初看起来(见图13.6),它好像就是一个推挽式、变压器耦合的B类放大器。与我们通常见到的并联振荡槽路不同,在这一放大器的输出端采用了一个串联的RLC网络,这是因为开关模式的放大器与前面学习过的电流模式的放大器相对偶,所以输出滤波器也互为对偶。

输入的连接方式保证了在一给定时间只有一个晶体管被驱动,其中一个晶体管在正半周工作而另一个在负半周工作,就像在推拉式B类放大器中那样。这里所不同的是晶体管被充分驱动使它们的工作如同开关而不是如同线性(或准线性)放大器。

由于开关作用,输出变压器T2的每个初级终端被交替地驱动至地,从而在初级绕组(因而正在次级)两端产生一个方波电压。当一个(晶体管的)漏极为零伏时,变压器的作用使另一个(晶体管的)漏极电压为2V DD。输出滤波器则只允许这一方波的基波分量流人到负载中。

由于在次级电路中只有基波电流,所以初级电流也是正弦的,因此每个开关在它导通的半周期中见到的是一个正弦波,所以变压器的电流和电压如图13.7和图13.8所示。由于晶体管的作用如同开关,所以D类放大器的理论效率为100%。

这个放大器归一化的功率传递能力即为①:

它比B类推拉放大器要好,并且比A类放大器要好得多。当然,D类放大器通常不能提供线性调制,但它却有可能提供高效率并且不会对器件产生过高的电压或电流。

这类(或任何其他开关)功率放大器的一个实际问题是并没有像理想开关这样的部件。在开关过程中非零的饱和电压肯定会产生静态功耗,而有限的开关速度也意味着开关的V-I积在过渡期间不为零。因此,开关模式的功率放大器只有在频率明显低于f r的情况下才能很好地工作。而且,如果应用双极型晶体管由于晶体管在饱和区的电荷存储使一个晶体管导通之前另一个晶体管于能完全关断,那么效率的降低就会特别严重。于是变压器的作用就会使全部电源电压加在还没有关断的器件上,从而V-I的乘积可能非常大。

13.5 E类放大器

正如我们已经看到的,采用晶体管作为开关有可能提供大为改善的效率,但由于现实开关的不完全理想使得在实际中实现这一可能性并不总是那么容易。相关的功耗将使效率降低。为了防止总的损耗,开关相对于工作频率必须非常快。当载波频率很高时,满足这一要求的困难将会更大。

如果有一种方法可以修改电路使得在切换瞬间附近的一段不为零的时间间隔内开关两端的电压为零,那么功耗就会降低。E类放大器采用高阶电抗网络提供足够的自由度来改变开关电压波形,使它在开关导通时的值和斜率均为零,从而降低了开关损耗。可惜的是它对于关断过渡没有任何作用,而关断过渡的边沿常常是更成问题的,至少在双极型设计中是如此。正如我们后面将要看到的,另一个问题是E类放大器具有很差的归一化功率传递能力(事实上比A类放大器还差),因此尽管这一类型的放大器可能有很高的效率(理论上在理想开关时为100%),但它却要求采用更大尺寸的器件把一定数量的功率传送到负载。

E类放大器的主要优点是很容易设计。不同于典型的C类放大器,它的实际实现几乎在设计后不会有什么问题就可以满意地工作。

在进行了先前这番讨论之后,现在让我们来看一下图13.9所示的E类放大器电路。与在前面的例子中一样,BFL提供了一条至电源的直流通路而在RF 时近似为开路。另外,我们注意到电容C1处于很方便的位置,因为任何器件的输出电容都可以被它吸收。

图13.9 E类放大器

设计公式的推导太复杂了,在此不多加论述。想要详细了解的读者可以参考Sokal的经典论文①。设计公式如下:

为了得到最大的效率,我们需要有与所希望的带宽相一致的最大Q值。在实际中可以达到的Q值常常大大低于那些能显著地限制带宽所要求的Q值。一旦Q值选定,E类功率放大器的设计就可以采用所给出的公式直接进行下去。

遗憾的是,漏极电流和电压波形的计算是很困难的。然而如果各处都调整好的话,那么这些波形看上去如图13.10所示。注意,在导通时漏极电压的斜率为

零,然而在开关关断时电流却接近最大。因此如果开关不是无限快(如多数会遇到的大多数开关的情形),那么在这一过渡期间开关的功耗可以抵消掉在过渡到“导通”状态时通过减少功耗所得到的大部分改善。

此外注意每一波形都有相当大的峰值对平均值的比。事实上细节分析表明,峰值漏极电压近似为3.6V DD,而峰值漏极电流大致为1.7V DD/R。

传送到负载上的最大输出功率为:

因此归一化功率输出能力为:

正如你可以看到的,E类放大器对开关特性提出了甚至比A类放大器更高的要求:

由于开关关断损耗使功率传递能力较差和效率降低①,E类放大器的实际实现并没有显示出比设计得很好的其他类型放大器(如下面要介绍的F类放大器)具有明显高的效率。此外,由于承受较大的开关强度电压,E类放大器也不能按照低功耗(并且由此而来的较低的击穿电压)工艺的趋势缩小尺寸而又能可靠地工作。由于这些理由,类放大器并没有得到广泛的应用,只是在最初的几篇论文之后引起了人们的极大兴趣。

另一种形式的F类放大器拓扑结构

图13.11所示的连接方式虽然很好,但在许多应用中传输线可能会很长而很不方便。而且在基波主外的奇次谐波处有无穷大(或接近无穷大)阻抗的优点常常在实际中会被晶体管本身的输出电容所消除。因此采用集总元件近似常常几乎可以与传输线的工作情况一样好。

为了建立这样的集总近似,可以用串联起来的许多并联谐振滤波器来代替传输线。每个谐振器调谐到载波频率不同的奇次皆波上。常常只需一个振荡回路调谐到3WO就已经足够了。在超过13.13所示的两个振荡回路时很少会发现效率有明显的改善。

13.7.1A、AB、B、C、E、F类

调制A类或B类放大器是很容易的,因为输出电压直接与漏极电流信号分量的幅值心成正比。因此如果心本身正比于输入驱动,那么就能实现线性调制。采用短沟MOS器件可以很容易地实现对这一比例关系很好的近似,因为当有足

够的栅电压时,短沟MOS器件具有恒跨导。双极型开器件由于有串联基极电阻也能提供合理的线性度,这一串联基极电阻或者由外部提供,或者就是器件本身的电阻。

C类放大器提出了更为明显的挑战,这可以通过研究前面推导出的输出电流公式来理解:

不管形式上如何,流过电阻负载的电流基波分量一般并不与i rf成线性比例三角函数项也与i rf有关①。因此,C类放大器通常并不提供线性调制能力值调制,至少当被调制的载波驱动栅电路时是如此。这是因为在括号内的因此一般不适合于幅为了调制C类(或E或F类)放大器,我们可以把调制信号叠加在电源电压上,这一技术称为漏极调制。只要调制信号的幅值与电源电压相比时不是太大,就能实现合理的线性调制。

最后对于所有这些方法,都可以采用负反馈来减少失真。为了降低对反馈回路增益—带宽积的要求,我们可以采样输出信号并对它进行解调,然后运用这个被解调的信号来闭合回路,如同图13.14所示。这样的结构常常以所采用的解调方法来区分。例如,如果解调器包含一对由正交载波驱动的混频器,那么这一功率放大器就常常说成是通过笛卡儿反馈来实现线性化。在有关总体结构的一章中,我们将更多地讨论有关正交混频器的问题。

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10kV小区供配电英文文献及中文翻译

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文献翻译英文原文

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英文翻译 A comprehensive overview of substations Along with the economic development and the modern industry developments of quick rising, the design of the power supply system become more and more completely and system. Because the quickly increase electricity of factories, it also increases seriously to the dependable index of the economic condition, power supply in quantity. Therefore they need the higher and more perfect request to the power supply. Whether Design reasonable, not only affect directly the base investment and circulate the expenses with have the metal depletion in colour metal, but also will reflect the dependable in power supply and the safe in many facts. In a word, it is close with the economic performance and the safety of the people. The substation is an importance part of the electric power system, it is consisted of the electric appliances equipments and the Transmission and the Distribution. It obtains the electric power from the electric power system, through its function of transformation and assign, transport and safety. Then transport the power to every place with safe, dependable, and economical. As an important part of power’s transport and control, the transformer substation must change the mode of the traditional design and control, then can adapt to the modern electric power system, the development of modern industry and the of trend of the society life. Electric power industry is one of the foundations of national industry and national economic development to industry, it is a coal, oil, natural gas, hydropower, nuclear power, wind power and other energy conversion into electrical energy of the secondary energy industry, it for the other departments of the national economy fast and stable development of the provision of adequate power, and its level of development is a reflection of the country's economic development an important indicator of the level. As the power in the industry and the importance of the national economy, electricity transmission and distribution of electric energy used in these areas is an indispensable component.。Therefore, power transmission and distribution is critical. Substation is to enable superior power plant power plants or power after adjustments to the lower load of books is an important part of power transmission. Operation of its functions, the capacity of a direct impact on the size of the lower load power, thereby affecting the industrial production and power consumption.Substation system if a link failure, the system will protect the part of action. May result in power outages and so on, to the production and living a great disadvantage. Therefore, the substation in the electric power system for the protection of electricity reliability,

英文论文及中文翻译

International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials Volume 17, Number 4, August 2010, Page 500 DOI: 10.1007/s12613-010-0348-y Corresponding author: Zhuan Li E-mail: li_zhuan@https://www.360docs.net/doc/269100424.html, ? University of Science and Technology Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010 Preparation and properties of C/C-SiC brake composites fabricated by warm compacted-in situ reaction Zhuan Li, Peng Xiao, and Xiang Xiong State Key Laboratory of Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China (Received: 12 August 2009; revised: 28 August 2009; accepted: 2 September 2009) Abstract: Carbon fibre reinforced carbon and silicon carbide dual matrix composites (C/C-SiC) were fabricated by the warm compacted-in situ reaction. The microstructure, mechanical properties, tribological properties, and wear mechanism of C/C-SiC composites at different brake speeds were investigated. The results indicate that the composites are composed of 58wt% C, 37wt% SiC, and 5wt% Si. The density and open porosity are 2.0 g·cm–3 and 10%, respectively. The C/C-SiC brake composites exhibit good mechanical properties. The flexural strength can reach up to 160 MPa, and the impact strength can reach 2.5 kJ·m–2. The C/C-SiC brake composites show excellent tribological performances. The friction coefficient is between 0.57 and 0.67 at the brake speeds from 8 to 24 m·s?1. The brake is stable, and the wear rate is less than 2.02×10?6 cm3·J?1. These results show that the C/C-SiC brake composites are the promising candidates for advanced brake and clutch systems. Keywords: C/C-SiC; ceramic matrix composites; tribological properties; microstructure [This work was financially supported by the National High-Tech Research and Development Program of China (No.2006AA03Z560) and the Graduate Degree Thesis Innovation Foundation of Central South University (No.2008yb019).] 温压-原位反应法制备C / C-SiC刹车复合材料的工艺和性能 李专,肖鹏,熊翔 粉末冶金国家重点实验室,中南大学,湖南长沙410083,中国(收稿日期:2009年8月12日修订:2009年8月28日;接受日期:2009年9月2日) 摘要:采用温压?原位反应法制备炭纤维增强炭和碳化硅双基体(C/C-SiC)复合材

外文文献及翻译

文献翻译 原文 Combining JSP and Servlets The technology of JSP and Servlet is the most important technology which use Java technology to exploit request of server, and it is also the standard which exploit business application .Java developers prefer to use it for a variety of reasons, one of which is already familiar with the Java language for the development of this technology are easy to learn Java to the other is "a preparation, run everywhere" to bring the concept of Web applications, To achieve a "one-prepared everywhere realized." And more importantly, if followed some of the principles of good design, it can be said of separating and content to create high-quality, reusable, easy to maintain and modify the application. For example, if the document in HTML embedded Java code too much (script), will lead the developed application is extremely complex, difficult to read, it is not easy reuse, but also for future maintenance and modification will also cause difficulties. In fact, CSDN the JSP / Servlet forum, can often see some questions, the code is very long, can logic is not very clear, a large number of HTML and Java code mixed together. This is the random development of the defects. Early dynamic pages mainly CGI (Common Gateway Interface, public Gateway Interface) technology, you can use different languages of the CGI programs, such as VB, C / C + + or Delphi, and so on. Though the technology of CGI is developed and powerful, because of difficulties in programming, and low efficiency, modify complex shortcomings, it is gradually being replaced by the trend. Of all the new technology, JSP / Servlet with more efficient and easy to program, more powerful, more secure and has a good portability, they have been many people believe that the future is the most dynamic site of the future development of technology. Similar to CGI, Servlet support request / response model. When a customer submit a request to the server, the server presented the request Servlet, Servlet responsible for handling requests and generate a response, and then gave the server, and then from the server sent to

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