绿色壁垒英文文献及翻译

Appendix：

Green Barriers from the Standpoint of Sustainable

Development

Abstract: Green barriers are one kind of non-tariff barrier (NTB). This paper points out that green barriers evolved from sustainable development theory and environmental protection, but are compatible with true comparative advantage. The best way to surmount green barriers for Chinese enterprises is to implement circular production processes and clean production techniques.

Key Words:Green barriers, sustainable development, ecology environment, circular economy, life-cycle analysis.

1. Introduction

Since the opening up and economic reform of China, its foreign trade volume has risen continuously from US$20.6 billion in 1978 to US$1,422 billion in 2005. The sum of exports plus imports as a fraction of GDP is 65.8%, the share of exports is 36.2%, the share of imports is 29.6% in 2006 in China (The National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2006). Exports mainly concentrate on labor intensive and resource intensive industries: labor intensive products accounting for 40% of total manufacturing exports and resource intensive including rubber and metal products accounting for 20%. This export pattern depletes resources and causes high emissions and high pollution, a serious environmental problem in China (Gu, 2005). In addition,besides agricultural products, the exportation of mechanical and electrical products is facing increasing technical barriers such as noise, pollution, safety standards, energy saving, and recycling requirements. Every year,about US$8 billion of export products are affected by foreign green labeling and trademarks and US$24 billion of products are indirectly influenced since packing methods do not satisfy the environmental protection standard of developed countries. Therefore, how to treat and cope with green barriers is imperative for China’s foreign trade.

2. Green Barriers

While there are no accurate and clear definitions in international treaties or

agreements, a‘green barrier’ is a new term to mean the application of stri ct technical standards and regulations in international trade (Dong, 2003). Besides a green environmental label, green barriers also include environmental surtaxes, market access requirements, green technology standards, green packaging, green sanitary measures and green subsidiaries (Leng, 2005).

Normally, a green barrier is regarded as an environmental barrier implemented by developed countries, who, on the grounds of protection of animal or plant life, establish strict and compulsory measures to restrict certain imported products (Gao, 2004). According to some authors, green barriers are a type of protectionism, unfair to developing countries and restricting their economic development (Tang and Tan, 2004).

In fact, the evolution and practice of green barriers conforms to sustainable global economic development along the lines of true comparative advantage. Developed countries realized sooner the facts concerning environmental externalities and their damage to humans and the environment.Some developed countries set up technological standards on the environment and natural resources, requiring that both the end products and all the production processes (R&D, producing, packing, transporting, consuming and recycling) conform to environmental protection requirements. Hence, green barriers have appeared on the international trade stage.

If green barriers are defined as unfair and discriminatory measures relating to trade as some Chinese scholars think, a resisting and rejecting attitude will persist. This will ignore the positive effects of green barriers on protecting the environment as well as the health of human beings, animals and plants. Unless arbitrary or unjustifiable environmental trade methods hinder international trade, a rational attitude and analysis should be adopted.

3. A Rational Analysis of Green Barriers

Green barriers are the outcome of economic development (Feng, 2004). Mass production and development of technology bring about two results. One is the positive effect on economy, increasing income and living standards; the other is the

huge, sometimes irreversible negative influence on natural resources and the environment. Many examples can be seen worldwide:desert encroachment, deforestation, water shortages, acid rain, biodiversity reduction; in short, air, land and sea pollution in general. While enjoying the increased welfare caused by high economic growth, the world is suffering serious environmental deterioration (Na, 2000). Our Common Future(WCED, 1987) put forward the idea of sustainable development in 1987, calling for a common endeavor that human beings should protect the environment and the health of people, animals and plants. The WCED defined sustainable development as development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In 1994, the IISD proposed the Winnipeg Principles as a means for reconciling international trade and development so as to achieve sustainable development (IISD, 1994). These principles constitute a starting point to integrate trade, the environment and development. The central idea in considering internalizing the environment through international cooperation is regulation in international trade. Economic growth arising from trade liberalization is the necessary condition for sustainable development, but trade liberalization without sufficient environment regulation will induce environmental degradation (Wang, 2005). Therefore, based on sustainable development theory and compatibility with comparative advantage (see theAppendix), green barriers have a positive and rational effect.

3.1. An International Environmental Management System

Incorporating Rational Green Barriers

First of all, the WTO/GATT is not against environmental measures related to trade adopted by its member countries. Article XX (b) and (g) allow WTO members to adopt and enforce measures if these are either necessary to protect human, animal or plant life or health, or if the measures relate to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources. However, such measures should not represent a disguised restriction on international trade nor be discriminatory in application. This Article has been regarded as the general principle for dealing with environmental disputes under

the WTO. In addition, environmental exceptions can be found in many WTO agreements like the Agreement on Agriculture, the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and others . These regulations imply that countries have the right to establish protection of human, animal or plant life or the environment, subject to the requirement that the protection does not constitute arbitrary discrimination or unwarranted restriction on trade. Therefore, a green barrier as an environmental measure related to trade, has been widely accepted, at least in principle, by WTO members.

Furthermore, the ISO promulgated ISO 14000 in 1996 in order to maintain global ecological balance and to harmonize environmental protection and economic development. ISO 14000 includes environmental management standards, environmental auditing, environmental labeling, and environmental impact assessments. It aims at establishing an Environmental Management System , promoting its implementation through environment assessment and auditing to improve the global environment. ISO 14000 has an active effect on reducing resource depletion and abating pollution emission. The European Union has applied ISO14000, requesting that all imported goods meet its environment standards covering materials, production, marketing, consumption and disposal. If ISO14000 can be adopted universally, it will diminish arbitrary trade barriers and promote the development of world trade along the lines of true comparative advantage. An international unified system to regulate the environment issue is necessary in order to achieve global sustainable development.

3.2. The Positive Externality of Green Barriers

The positive externality of green barriers is not only embodied in environmental and technological effects, but also in aligning world production according to true comparative advantage. The existence of green barriers requires the internalization of the environment cost into the process of production. The products must be friendly to the environment and should not damage the environment in production, transit or disposal. These requirements make traded goods comply with environmental

regulations and standards so as to protect the ecological environment of importing and exporting countries, as well as to create more resources for environmental investment. Protecting the environment in one country will have a positive impact on its neighbors and the global environment; hence acting as a positive global externality. The emergence of green barriers reflects the demand for the coordinated development of the environment and the direction of development of human society. The implementation of green barriers also accelerates the strength of environmental and green consumption awareness.

Stringent environmental standards and market access requirements in developed countries will spur developing countries to learn advanced technologies and improve production levels while providing for environmental protection. These green barriers will bring about a positive externality of technology spillover if their implementation has an active influence on the greening of world production.

3.3. The Stimulating Effect of Green Barriers

The Porter Hypothesis, proposed by Michael Porter of Harvard University, puts forward the debate on the relationship between environmental regulation and competitiveness. According to the Porter Hypothesis, strict environmental regulations can induce efficiency and encourage innovations that improve competitiveness. This is because strict environmental regulation triggers the discovery and introduction of clean technologies and environmental improvements. In this way, the innovative effect can induce production processes and products to be more efficient and clean. The social cost savings that can be achieved by innovation are sufficient to cover both the compliance costs directly attributed to new regulations and the innovation costs . As a result, appropriate and stringent environmental regulation will lead to improvements in social welfare as well as the private net benefits of firms operating under such regulations .

The concept of green barriers integrates principles and theories of environmental science, management, and ecology. Applied to the processes of producing, storage, using, marketing and recycling, rational green barriers are conducive to structuring a

complete and environment-friendly management system. Except for those which violate the non-discriminatory principles of the WTO, green barriers have a stimulating effect on environmental R&D, technology innovation, clean production and green marketing. In the case of frivolous barriers, they only protect environmentally unfriendly production in the home country.

4. The Circular Economy and Green Barriers

Green barriers can restrict some trade activities which negatively affect natural resources, the environment, human health or life. Developed countries have established a green fence to imported goods. For China, the fundamental way to surmount green barriers is to transform traditional production and development modes; that is to say to carry out a circular production process (CP) which is based on the principle of efficient utilization of resources and protecting the environment.

Since industrialization, economic development has been characterized by high exploitation of resources and high emissions. The traditional producing and economic method, from production, consumption to waste disposal, is the process of ‘from cradle to grave’. The circular economy, on the other hand, is a nearly closed-loop system , provided that residual waste not recycled is disposed of in a green manner. The theme of a circular economy is the exchange of materials where one facility’s waste, including energy, water and materials as well as information is another facility’s input . CE promotes reducing and reusing of waste ‘from cradle to cradle’. In terms of reconciling economic development and environmental improvement, CP is a green production mode.

The basic principle of implementing CE is reducing, reusing and recycling. Reducing refers to reducing the materials entering production and consumption. Reusing means prolonging the durability of products and services,while recycling can reduce disposal needs.

Based on ecological rules, the CP mode reasonably utilizes natural and environmental resources in an industry chain among various enterprises and industries similar to a natural ecology chain. It promotes the optimum use of resources,

recycling of material and eliminating environment deterioration.

Second, CP production is especially helpful for Chinese enterprises attempting to surmount green barriers. Technology spillover encourages enterprises to improve green production and optimize the social exporting pattern. The social benefit of CP will reduce environmental damage. At the same time, it will narrow the gap of environmental technology standards, upgrading the ability to cope with green barriers .

Third, CE implementation can rebound to increasing eco-efficiency, forming sustainable comparative advantage and casting off comparative cost traps. Due to the increasing scarcity of resources and decreasing environment quality, developing countries are not environmentally factor abundant. The export advantages of these countries, including China, are based on cheap natural resources and lax environmental policies and standards. However, this advantage is unsustainable and will finally lose out with the integration of the environment into the international trade regime. The internalization of environmental cost contributes to reducing the excessive depletion of resources for export. It will protect Chinese export enterprises from the censure of eco-dumping. The sooner the implementation of CP, the larger are export benefits to be gained.Sustainable comparative advantage based on environmental costs being internalized can eliminate the negative environment externality of production and reflect the social value of ecological production.

5. Conclusion

Under the current circumstances of globalization, world trade and the economy are tending towards green production and environmental protection.The green barriers faced by China’s exports are a signal to China’s foreign trade development. It is desirable to realize that environmental standards and green barriers are not intentionally aimed at undermining China’s exports due to Most-Favored Nation Treatment, but are required for the world environment and for human health and safety. Therefore, it would be in vain to complain, criticize or resist green barriers. The effective means and ways to overcome barriers and seek true comparative

advantage are to introduce the circular economy concept, carrying out clean production. The internalization of environment cost can make China’s exp orts comply with international environmental standards and lead to sustainable, true comparative advantage and growth.

附录：

从可持续发展的角度看绿色壁垒

摘要：绿色壁垒是一种非关税壁垒。本文指出绿色壁垒源于可持续发展理论与环境保护，但与真正的比较优势是兼容的。中国企业克服绿色壁垒最好的方式是实施循环生产工艺和清洁生产技术。

关键词：绿色壁垒；可持续发展；生态环境；循环经济；生命周期分析

1引言

自从中国实行改革开放和经济改革以来，其对外贸易额已经连续上涨，由1978年206亿美元升至2005年的14220亿美元。2006年中国进口的贸易额加上出口的贸易额占国内生产总值的65.8%，其中，出口的份额占36.2%，进口的份额占29.6%（中国国家统计局，2006）。我国的出口主要集中在劳动密集型和资源密集型产业：劳动密集型产品占总出口制造业的40%，包括橡胶和金属制品在内的资源密集型产品占20%。这种出口模式消耗资源，并导致高排放、高污染，这在中国是一个严重的环境问题。此外，除了农业产品，机电产品的出口也面临越来越大的技术障碍，如噪音、污染、安全标准、节能和回收要求。由于包装方法不符合发达国家的环境保护标准，每年大约80亿美元的出口产品受到国外绿色标签和商标的影响，240亿美元的产品间接受到影响。因此，如何看待和应对绿色壁垒是中国对外贸易的当务之急。

2绿色壁垒

虽然在国际条约或协定中没有准确和清晰的定义，“绿色壁垒”作为一个新的术语是指严格的技术标准和规范在国际贸易中的应用。除了绿色环境标签，绿色壁垒还包括环境附加税、市场准入要求、绿色技术标准、绿色包装、绿色卫生措施和绿色子公司。

通常，绿色屏障被视为发达国家实施的一种环境壁垒，他们为了保护动物或植物的生命而建立严格的强制措施来限制某些进口产品。一些作者认为，绿色壁垒是一种保护主义，它对发展中国家是不公平的，限制了发展中国家的经济发展。

事实上，绿色壁垒的演变和实践符合全球经济的可持续发展与真实的比较优势。发达国家更快地意识到了外部环境和外部环境对人类和环境的损害这一事

实。一些发达国家在环境和自然资源方面建立了技术标准，要求最终产品和所有生产过程（研发，生产，包装，运输，消费和回收）符合环境保护要求。因此，绿色壁垒已经出现在国际贸易的舞台。

如果像一些中国学者认为的那样，绿色壁垒被定义为一种与贸易有关的不公平的和歧视性的措施，那么，抵制和拒绝的态度将会会坚持下去。这将忽视绿色壁垒对保护环境以及人类、动物、植物健康的积极影响。除非任意的或不合理的环境贸易方法阻碍国际贸易，否则应该采用理性的态度和分析方法。

3 绿色壁垒的理性分析

绿色壁垒是经济发展的结果。大规模的生产和技术的发展带来两个结果，一个是对经济的积极影响：收入和生活水平的增加；另一个是对自然资源和环境的巨大的、有时不可逆转的负面影响。许多例子可以在世界范围内看到：沙漠化、森林砍伐、水资源短缺、酸雨、生物多样性减少；总之是普遍的空气、土地和海洋污染。在享受经济的高增长而带来的福利增加的同时，世界正遭受严重的环境恶化。“我们共同的未来”委员会在1987提出了可持续发展的思想，呼吁共同努力，人类应该保护环境和人、动物、植物的健康。委员会将可持续发展定义为，既满足当代人的需求又不损害子孙后代满足其需要的能力。1994，国际可持续发展机构建议把此原则作为协调国际贸易和发展的一种手段以达到可持续发展的目的。这些原则构成了整合贸易、环境和发展的起点。通过国际合作而考虑内部环境的中心思想是对国际贸易的调节。由于贸易自由化而带来的经济增长是可持续发展的必要条件，但没有足够的环境管制的贸易自由化会引起环境退化。因此，基于可持续发展理论和兼容性比较优势，绿色壁垒会产生积极的、理性的影响。

3.1 包含理性绿色壁垒的国际环境管理系统

首先，世贸组织/关贸总协定不反对其成员国采取的与贸易相关的环境措施。如果这些措施对保护人类、动物或植物的生命或健康是必要的，或者如果措施涉及可能用竭的自然资源的保护，那么第二十条允许世贸组织成员采取并执行措施。然而，这些措施不应是对国际贸易的变相限制或歧视性的应用。这一原则已被视为在世贸组织下处理环境纠纷的一般原则。此外，环境例外可以在许多世贸