(完整word版)语言学第六章之后

Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1. 语言与认知

6.1.What is Cognition认知?

a.Mental processes, information processing

b.Mental process or faculty of knowing,including awareness,perception, reasoning, and judgment.

2.The formal approach:形式法structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.

The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.

The conceptual approach:认知法：how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.

6.2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学

The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.

6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得①Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段Stage of three-word utterances三词句阶段④Fluent grammatical conversation stage

6.2.2 Language comprehension理解

Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words, retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that frequency of exposure determines our ability to recall stored instances Connectionism（连结主义）: readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns, like love.

Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones

Word recognition单词识别: recognition of spoken words and printed ones.

Cohort theory:集群模型

Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978)

The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set of word candidates that are consistent with the input. Eg. To an instruction” pick up the candle”, listeners sometimes glances first at a picture of a candy.

Interactive model:交互模型

Higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. eg.In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, list eners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.

Race model:竞争模型

Pre-lexical route: computes phonological information from the acoustic signal Lexical route: the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed eg.listeners use phonotactic information such as

the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boundaries.

Factors involved in word recognition: ?

Frequency effect: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.

Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.

Cotext: We recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.

Lexical ambiguity词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank. Comprehension of sentences句子的理解

Serial models串行模型: the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a langu age’s grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information.

Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence.

Structural factors in comprehension理解中的结构因素Comprehension of written and spoken language can be difficult because it is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment最小配属: the “structurally simpler”--structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the inheritance belongs to her.

Garden path sentences花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates.

Lexical factors in comprehension词汇因素

The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexicon. eg.The salesman glanced at a/the customer with suspicion/ripped jeans.

Syntactic ambiguity句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases.

Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence. Eg. John painted the car in the garage.

Comprehension of text语篇理解

Resonance model:共振模型information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.

Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferences

Schema:图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. eg.The customer enters a restaurant, looks for a

table, decides where to sit, walks to the table…

https://www.360docs.net/doc/521783765.html,nguage production语言的生成

（1）Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word selection: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept. 3.: Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.

（2）Generation of sentences句子的生成

1.Conceptual preparation概念准备: deciding what to say – a global plan is needed

2.Word retrieval and application of syntactic knowledge

3.Processes of sentence generation

4.Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positions for each unit

(3) Written language production:

similar to those in the production of spoken language. A major different is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather than the phonological form that must be retrieved and produced.

6.3 Cognitive Linguistics认知语言学

Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.

6.3.1 Construal and construal operations识解及操作

Construal识解: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways

(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显: the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that is salient to us. eg. We drove along the road.

(2)Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比: the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There’s a cat[figure] on the mat[ground]

(3). Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置: we view a scene in terms of our situatedness. It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we’re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness. Eg. My bike is in front of the car.

6.3.2 Categorization范畴化

The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences.

Three levels: basic level superordinate level subordinate level.

6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.

An image-schema is a “skeletal” mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.

1.A center-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple

2.A containment schema 容器图示human bodies as containers

3.A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks

4.A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity

5. A link schema 连接图式

6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式

7. A path schema 路径图式

8. A scale schema 标量图式

9. A verticality schema 垂直图式

6.3.4 Metaphor隐喻George Lakoff and Mark Johnson

Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.

Target domain 目标域- what is actually being talked about.

Source domain 源域- the domain used as a basis for understanding target

Eg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source domain of money.

1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living

2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly delineated source domain to structure target domain. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argument.

3. Orientational Metaphor方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UP

adding more of a substance, and perceiving the level of the substance rise.

6.3.5 Metonymy转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff

On the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:

the w orld of “concept” the world of “form” the world of “things” and “events”

(1)Whole ICM and its part(s) 整体与部分间的转喻：

(i) Thing-and-Part ICM事物及部分转喻eg. America for “United States” (ii) Scale ICM标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your age? (iii) Constitution ICM. 构成转喻eg.: wood for “forest” (iv) Event ICM. 事件转喻Eg.Bill smoked marijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM. 范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for “birth control pill”(vi)Cateory-and-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for “black people”(vii) Reduction ICM 压缩转喻eg.crude for “crude oil”

(2) Parts of an ICM 部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM. 行为转喻eg.o author a new book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM. 因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I’ve got a Ford for “car” (v) Control ICM控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) Possession ICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “person with money”(vii) containment ICM容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Reference ICMs符号和指代转喻

6.3.6 Blending Theory整合理论 1.Cross-Space Mapping跨空间映射 2.Generic Space 类属空间3.Blend整合 4.Emergent Structure层创结构

Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society

7.1 Language and culture语言和文化

7.1.1 How does language relate to culture

In 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology (the study of humanity ), encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human genetics

London School伦敦学派:

Malinowski马林诺夫斯基: The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given context

Ethnography of communication交际民族学：1.speech community言语社团

2.situation, event and act 场景，事件，行为

3.SPEAKING(situation,participants,ends,act,sequence,key,instrumentalities,norms,ge nres)

Speech community言语社团: a group of people who form a community, and share the same language or a particular variety of language

Theory of the context of situation(情景语境理论)J. R. Firth (1890-1960):

A.The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.

1.The verbal言语action of the participants

2.The non-verbal action of the participants

B.The relevant objects.

C.The effects of the verbal action.

“who speaks what to whom and when and to what end”

Halliday: Study language from a social semiotic or interactional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature

7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world.

Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)

The strong version(强式说): The weak version (弱式说):

7.1.3.Case studies个案研究

Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “idiomatically-governed” and “culturally-specific”.

7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic study

A study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivation and directionality in language change.

7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroom文化在语言学习中的重要作用：

A. To get the students familiar with cultural difference.

B. To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.

C. To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices.

7.2. Language and Society

7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent science 一元性或自治性

Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性

A situationally and socially variationist perspective

A maxim in sociolinguistics: “You are what you say.” (尔即尔所言)

WOMEN REGISTER 女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象

7.2.3 What should we know more about sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationship between language and society.

7.2.4 What implications can we get from sociolinguistics?社会语言学的重要启示：sociolinguistics’ contributions: 1. It has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teaching. 2. …innovations in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of language development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.

applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学

In language classrooms In law courts In clinic settings

7.3 Cross-cultural Communication 跨文化交际

What should we know all about cross-cultural communication? 1.Try to look at things from other persons’ point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue 3.Try to understand their way of knowing the world

7.3.2 Case studies 个案研究

When in Rome do as the Romans do Put yourself in other’s shoes

One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding.

Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用

What is pragmatics语用学? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics 语义学?

Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of ：(1) H ow the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.

Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.

8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论

8.1.1 Performatives and constatives施为句和叙事句

1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).

2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.

3. Felicity conditions of performatives施为句的条件:

(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate.

(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.

(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.

8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act会话含义理论

1. What is a speech act言语行为?

A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.

Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义: This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.

Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force)言外之意: This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener.

A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.

2. Locutionary act言内行为: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.

3. Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function.

4. Perlocutionary act言后行为: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.

8.2 The theory of conversational implicature会话含义理论

8.2.1 The cooperative principle合作原则

1.Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims会话准则:

(1) The maxim of quantity数量:

a. Make your contribution as informative as required.

b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.

(2) The maxim of quality质量: Try to make your contribution one that is true.

a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.

b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

(3) The maxim of relation关系: Say things that are relevant.

(4) The maxim of manner方式: Be perspicuous.

a. Avoid obscurity of expression.

b. Avoid ambiguity.

c. Be brief.

d. Be orderly.

2. Conversational implicature言外之意: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.

8.2.2 Violation of the maxims准则的违反

1. Conversational implicature言外之意

In real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal

meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.r the speakers’ intention through the words.

8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability可推导性2.Cancellability / defeasibility可取消性3. Non-detachability不可分离性4.Non-conventionality非常规性

8.3 Post-Gricean developments后格莱斯时期的发展

8.3.1 Relevance theory关联理论

Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.

8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R原则

The Q-principle is intended to invoke t he first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.

The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人) is:

(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);

(2) Say as much as you can (given R在符合R原则的前提下).

The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:

(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);

(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)

8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则

Q-principle:

Speaker’s maxim准则: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement would contravene the I-principle.

I-principle

Speaker’s maxim: the maxim o f minimization最小化原则

Say as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.

Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment rule

Amplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by fin ding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.

M-principle

Speaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix冗长的, obscure模糊的or marked显著的expression without reason.

Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.

Chapter 9 Language and Literature

9.1 Theoretical background概述

1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person’s speech or writing or a particular person’s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.

2. Stylistics文体学: According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.

9.2 Some general features of the literary language文学语言的一些普遍特征

9.2.1Foregrounding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式

1. Foregrounding前景化: Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put something or someone in the most essential part of the description or narration, other than in a background position.

2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning.

9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language字面语言和比喻语言

1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal meaning.

2. Figurative language: A. k. a. trope, which refers to language used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.

We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc.

Simile明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like.

Metaphor暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.

Metonymy转喻：means a change of name

Synecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.

9.2.3 The analysis of literary language文学语言的分析

9.3 The language in poetry诗歌语言

9.3.1 Sound patterning语音模式

9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning不同形式的语音模式

1. Rhyme押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of another line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).

2. Alliteration头韵: The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).

3. Assonance准押韵: Assonance describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc).

4. Consonance辅押韵: Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as having consonance (cvC).

5. Reverse rhyme反韵: Reverse rhyme describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant (CVc).

6. Pararhyme压副韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).

7. Repetition反复: A complete match of the syllable (CVC).

9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterning重音和韵律模式

1. Iamb抑扬格: An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.

2. Trochee扬抑格: A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an unstressed syllable.

3. Anapest抑抑扬格: An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.

4. Dactyl扬抑抑格: A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed –a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed ones.

5. Spondee扬扬格: A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely consist only of spondees.

6. Pyrrhic抑抑格: A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.

7. Metrical patterning韵律模式

(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter

(7)Heptameter (8)Octameter

9.3.4 Conventional forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式

1.Couplets对句: Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.

2.Quatrains四行诗: Stanzas of four lines, known as quatrains, are very common in English poetry.

3.Blank verse无韵诗: Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.

9.3.5The poetic functions of sound and meter语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：

1. For aesthetic pleasure

2. To conform to a convention / style / form

3. To express or innovate with a form

4. To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure

5. For emphasis or contrast

6. Onomatopoeia拟声现象

9.3.6 How to analyze poetry?如何分析诗

1. Read a poem more than once.

2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.

3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is written to be heard: its meanings are conveyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip reading is a good habit.

4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggestions.

5. As aids to the understanding of a poem, we may ask some questions about.

(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?

(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?

(3) What is the occasion?

(4) What is the setting in time (time of day, season, century)?

(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?

(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?

9.4 The language in fiction小说中的语言

9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view小说与视角

1.First-person narrator (I-narrator)叙述者: The person who tells the story may also be

a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case, the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or an I-narrator because when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I” is used.

2.Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者: If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-person pronouns, he, she, it or they.

3.schema-oriented language图式语言

4.Deixis指示功能: A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to

a time, place, or a person.

9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation言语和思维的表达

1. Speech presentation言语的表达：

(1) Direct speech (DS)直接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.

(2) Indirect speech (IS)间接引语: A kind of speech presentation in which the speaker’s words are not reported as they were actually said.

(3) Free indirect speech (FIS)自由间接引语: A further category which is an amalgam of direct and indirect speech features.

(4) Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达: A minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summary of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more back-grounded than indirect representation would be.

(5) Narrator’s representation of spee ch (NRS)叙述者对言语的表达: A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify the speech acts involved.

2.Thought presentation思维的表达

(1) Direct thought (DT)直接思维: Direct thought tends to be used for presenting conscious, deliberative thought. E.g. “He will be late,” she thought.

(2) Indirect thought (IT)间接思维: A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. E.g. She thought that he would be late.

(3) Free indirect thought (FIT)自由间接思维: A kind of mixture of direct and indirect features. E.g. He was bound to be late!

(4) Narrator’s rep resentation of thought acts (NRTA): A kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters is exactly as that used to present speech acts. E.g. She considered his unpunctuality.

(5) Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): A possibility of speech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator’s representation of speech acts, namely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not even specify

the speech acts involved.

(6) Stream of consciousness writing意识流文学: The term stream of consciousness was originally coined by the philosopher William James in his Principle of Psychology (1890) to describe the free association of ideas and impressions in the mind. It was later applied to the writing of William Faulkner, James Joyce, Virginia Woolf and others experimenting early in the 20th century with the novelistic portrayal of the free flow of thought.

9.4.3 Prose style散文风格

1. Authorial style作者风格: When people talk of style, they usually mean authorial style. This refers to the “world view” kind of authorial style. In other words a way of writing which recognizably belongs to a particular writer, say Jane Austin or Earnest Hemingway.

2. Text style文本风格: Text style looks closely at how linguistic choices help to construct textual meaning. Just as authors can be said to have style, so can text.

9.4.4 How to analyze the language of fiction?如何分析小说语言

1. Patterns of lexis (vocabulary);词汇模式

2. Patterns of grammatical organization;语法组织模式

3. Patterns of textual organization (how the units of textual organization, from sentences to paragraphs and beyond, are arranged);

4. Fore-grounded features, including figures of speech (rhetorical devices);

5. Whether any patterns of style variation can be discerned;

6. Discoursal patterning of various kinds, like turn-taking or patterns of inferencing;

7. Patterns of viewpoint manipulation, including speech and thought presentation. 9.5 The language of drama 戏剧语言

9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?如何分析戏剧：1.understand the text better 2. Understand how conversation works 3.appreciate better the skills playwrights have demonstrated in the way they have written the speeches of their characters 4. See things in the text that other forms of analysis might have allowed us to miss.

9.5.2 Analyzing dramatic language分析戏剧性语言

1.Turn quantity and length话轮数量和长度

2.Exchange sequence交际序列

3.Production errors产出性错误

4.The cooperative principle合作原则

5.Status marked through language通过语言标记地位

6.Register语域

7.Speech and silence言语和沉默

9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts?如何分析剧本: paraphrase the text--write a commentary---select a theoretical approach, perhaps from those discussed above Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching语言学与语言教学

11.1 T he relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching语言学与语言教学的关系

1. Both linguistics and foreign language teaching take language as their subject. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, so it is clearly related with language teaching. However, linguistics and language teaching differ in their attitudes, goals and methods towards language.

2. Linguistics regards language as a system of forms, while the field of foreign

language teaching considers it as a set of skills. Linguistics research is concerned with the establishment of theories which explain the phenomena of language use, whereas foreign language teaching aims at the learners’ mastery of language.

3. Applied linguistics serves to reconcile and combine linguistics and foreign language teaching.

(1) Applied linguistics extends theoretical linguistics in the direction of language learning and teaching, so that the teacher is enabled to make better decisions on the goal and content of the teaching.

(2) Applied linguistics states the insights and implications that linguistic theories have on the language teaching methodology.

11.2.1 Grammar and language learning语言学与语言学习

1. Focus on form: Although language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.

2. Universal grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.

11.2.2 Input and language learning输入和语言学习

According to this hypothesis, learners acquire a language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input should neither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to their current stage that they are not challenged at all.

11.2.3 Interlanguage in language learning语言学习中的中介语

Constructivism建构主义: Language is socially constructed. Learners learn language by cooperating, negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. They construct language in certain social and cultural contexts

Interlanguage:中介语The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language/ a language syste m between the target language and the learner’s native language

11.3Linguistics & Language Teaching语言学和语言教学

11.3.1 Discourse-based view of language teaching基于语篇的语言教学Communicative competence交际能力A learner’s knowledge about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communication. Communicative language teaching(CLT)交际语教学法and Task-based language teaching (TBLT)任务型语言教学

Drawbacks of discourse-based view基于语篇的教学观的缺点：

a. Overemphasizing the role of external factors;

b. Similar to behaviorist view of language acquisition;

c. Failing to notice the universal principles that guide language acquisition

11.3.2 The universal grammar and language teaching普遍语法与语言教学

The universal grammar supports the idea that the external input per se may not account for language acquisition.

11.4 Linguistics & Syllabus design语言学与教学大纲的设计

11.4.1 A clarification of terms : syllabus and curriculum教学大纲与课程计划Syllabus:教学大纲The planning of a course of instruction. A specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.

Curriculum:课程计划all the learning goals, objectives, contents, processes, resources and means of evaluation planned for students both in and out of school.

二者区别：A syllabus is a specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. A curriculum, however, provides:(1)general statements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching(2)detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose and (3)implementation of a program. In some sense, a syllabus is part of a curriculum. 11.4.2 Theoretical views behind syllabus design教学大纲设计的理论背景Grading分级staging分阶段sequencing排序

11.4.3 Types of syllabus教学大纲的类型

--Structural syllabus-结构教学大纲：is a grammar oriented syllabus based on s selection of language items and structures.

-Situational syllabus-情景教学大纲does not have a strong linguistic basic, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the view that language is used for communication. The aim of it is specifying the situations in which the target language is used.

-Communicative syllabus -交际教学大纲: aims at the learner’s communicative competence. It teaches the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, and emphasizes the process of communication.

-Task-based syllabus任务型教学大纲:is more concerned with the classroom process which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master. It consists of a list of specification of the tasks and activities that the learners will engage in class and the target language.:1. A task should have a clear purpose. 2. A task should have some degree of resemblance to real-world events. 3. A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying. 4. A task should involve the students in some modes of doing things. 5. A task should involve the meaning-focused use of language.

11.4.4 Components of syllabus教学大纲的组成要素

1.Aims

2. Objectives目标

3. Non-language outcomes非语言结果

4. Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills,etc.学习策略

5. Implementation实施

6. Assessment 评定

11.4.5 Current trends in syllabus design教学大纲设计的现行趋势

A. The co-existence of the old and the new.新旧并存

B. The emphasis on the learning process强调学习过程

C. The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus大纲中包含非语言目标

D. The emergence of the multi-syllabus多元大纲的出现

11.5 Contrastive analysis and Error analysis对比分析和错误分析

11.5.1 Errors, mistakes, and error analysis

1. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.

2. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.

3. Lapse: Lapse refers to slips of the tongue or pen made by either foreign language learners or native speakers.

4. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to the language learner.

11.5.2 Attitudes to errors：1. The structuralist view 2. The post-structuralist view

11.5.3 Procedure of error analysis错误分析的程序：1. Recognition识别 2.

Description描述3. Explanation解释

11.5.4 Contrastive analysis and non-contrastive analysis

1. Contrastive analysis (CA)对比分析: CA is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages. E.g. the comparison of the sound or the grammatical system.

2. Transfer转移: Transfer refers to the carrying over of learned behavior from one situation to another.

(1) Positive transfer (facilitation)正转移: Positive transfer is learning in one situation which helps or facilitates learning in another later situation. E.g. when the structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer.

(2) Negative transfer (interference)负转移: Negative transfer is learning in one situation which interferes with learning in another later situation.

3. Overgeneralization过度概括: A process common in both first and second language learning, in which a learner extends the use of a grammatical rule of linguistic item beyond its accepted uses, generally by making words or structures follow a more regular pattern. E.g. in the sentence “* He speaked English.”, “speaked” is wrong (overgeneralized).

4. Hypercorrection矫枉过正: Overgeneralization of a rule in language use. E.g. some learners constantly miss the articles in English, and after they are corrected, they tend to overuse them.

Interlingual errors 语法内错误(transfer errors)

Intralingual errors跨语言错误(developmental errors)