语言学复习重点

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C h a p t e r1绪论

1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学

Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.

It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.

2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴

The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)

The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）

The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）

The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）

The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）

The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）

The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）

The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）

The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.

Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）

3. Some important distinctions in linguistics

语言学研究中的几对基本概念

Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写

If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down

rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.

Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.

Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时

The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a

diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.

Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are

still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.

Langue and parole 语言和言语

The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.

Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what

linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.

Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用

Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.

He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.

is language 语言的定义

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.

5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征

Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.

Arbitrariness 语言的随意性

Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.

Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.

Productivity 语言的创造性

Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.

Duality 语言的二重性

The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.

Displacement 语言的移位性

Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.

Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性

While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.

Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学

1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介

Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is

more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.

For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.

The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.

2．What is phonetics什么是语音学

Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

There are three branches of phonetics. They are:

Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.

Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.

Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which

speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

3. Organs of speech 发音器官

The pharyngeal cavity咽腔 the throat

The oral cavity 口腔 the mouth

The nasal cavity 鼻腔 the nose

The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.

Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.

The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.

representation of speech sounds –broad and narrow transcriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标

IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标

There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).

实例：

对pit/spit中p音的比较：

pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]

spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]

对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：

Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]

Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]

Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~] Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II] of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类

a)Classification of English consonants

英语辅音的分类

按发音方式分

Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]

Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [W] [T] [s] [V] [h]

Affricate 塞擦音：[tF][dV]

Liquid流音：[l] [r]

Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [N]

Glide滑音：[w] [j]

按发音部位分

Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w]

Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v]

Dental齿音：[W] [T]

Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]

Palatal硬腭音：[V][tF][dV][i]

Velar软腭音：[k] [g] [N]

Glottal声门音：[h]

B) Classification of English vowels

英语元音的分类

按舌头在口中的位置分：

Front vowel前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a]

Central vowel中元音：[[:] [[] [Q]

Back vowel后元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R] [a:]

按口形的大小分：

Close vowel闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u]

Semi-close vowel半闭元音：[e] [[:]

Open vowel开元音：[A] [a]

Semi-open vowel半开元音：[[] [R:] [Q] [R] [a:]

按唇形是否为圆分

Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [A] [a] [[:] [[] [Q] [a:]

rounded vowel圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [R:] [R]

按语音的长短分

Long vowel长元音[i:] [[:][a:] [u:] [R:]

Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [A] [a] [[] [Q] [u] [R]

在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei] [ai] [[u] [a u] [Ri ] [i[] [e[] [u[]

6. Phonology 音系学

Phonology and phonetics 音系学和语音学

Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.

Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;

Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.

语音学研究人类所有的语言。音系学研究某种特定语言的语音系统。

Example:

单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。

音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。

7. Phone, phoneme, and allophone 语音（音素）、音位、音位变体

Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.

语音是语言学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。语音是一个语音单位或一个切分成分，它并不一定能区分意义。

Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. A phoneme is not a sound, it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.

音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合

体，音位具有区别意义的作用。一个音位在语音上被具体体现为一个特定的语音（音素）。

按照惯例，音位被置于两斜线之间，如/p/ /t/，而语音被置于方括号内，如[p] [t].

The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different

phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境里的具体体现，同一个音位在不同的语音

环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。

contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立、互补

分布、最小对立对

Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might

form a contrast if they are two distinctive phonemes, or they do not

form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme.

相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。两个相似的语音如果是两个区别性音位，它们

在意义上形成对立，如果是同一音位的变体，在意思上不形成对立。

The former is called phonemic contrast, they can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning.

音位对立是指不同音位之间的关系，它们可以出现在不同的语音组合的同一位置，产生意义差别，如rope和robe中的/p/和/b/。

The latter is called complementary distribution; they are two allophones of the same phoneme. They only occur in different environments.

互补分布是指音位变体之间的关系，同一个音位的不同变体在语音组合中永远不会出现在相同的位置上，它们没有区别意义的作用，如top中的送气的[p]和stop 中不送气的[p]。

A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another one results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs.

确定一种语言的音位的一个基本途径是，看如果用一个语音代替另一个是否会产生不同的意义。如果产生了，那么这两个语音就代表不同的音位。为此，一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。

When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.

最小对立对是指除了出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合，如[pen]和[ben]。

9. Some rules in phonology 几条音系规则

A) sequential rules 系列规则

The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.

在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。

重要的规则：

I.如果单词以[l] 或[r] 为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude, last, leap

II.如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p塞擦音[tF][dV]和咝音[s] [z] [F] [V] 后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach 变复数为teaches[ti:tFiz]。

IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同的，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。

B)assimilation rules 同化规则

The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.

同化规则即通过“模仿”一个系列音位的一个特征使一个语音与另一个语音相似，从而使两个音素变得相似。

重要的规则：

I.元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/ green 中的[i:]音。

II.在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct –incorrect。

III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。

C) deletion rules 省略规则

The rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.

省略规则告诉我们什么时候一个语音尽管在拼写中存在，但在发音中却省略了。重要的规则：

I. 如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。

10. Suprasegmental features- stress, tone, intonation 超切分特征：重音、声调和语调

Distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.

区别性特征也可以在由两个或多个音位切分成分所组成的系列中体现出来。出现在切分层面之上的音系特征叫做超切分特征。它们时音节、单词和句子等语言单位的音系特征。主要的超切分特征包括重音、音调和语调。

A) Stress 重音

重要的规则：

I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。

II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。B)Tone 声调

英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。

C)Intonation 语调

When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.当音高、重音和音长依附于一个句子而不是单个单词时，这些音素合起来叫做语调。

English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone. The most frequently used are the first three.

英语中有四种基本语调：降调、升调、降升调、升降调。最常用的是前三种。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学

Definition定义

Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.

形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。

1. Morpheme 语素

The smallest meaningful unit of language语言最小的意义单位。

The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning.

语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。

2. Types of morphemes 语素的分类

a) Free morphemes 自由语素

Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.

自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。

b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素

Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.

黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素－自由语素或黏着语素－结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。

3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类

Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。

A root is often seen as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.

词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。

Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀

Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:

屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：

-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数

-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数

-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时

-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时

-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs表示形容词和副词比较级

-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级

-‘s, indicating the possessive case of nouns 表示名词的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.

派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上