语言学概论知识点概括

语言学概论知识点概括
语言学概论知识点概括

Chapter1 介绍

1.1.1Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of langue

Linguistics studies not any particular language, but in studies of languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.

1.1.2The scope of linguistics: 1.the study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.

2. a number of relatively independent branches:phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics.

3. language and society are closely connected and the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.

4. psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.

5. t he study of the applications is generally known as applied linguistics.

1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics:

1). prescriptive vs descriptive.If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for‖correct and standard‖ behaviour in using language and to tell people what they should say and should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.

2) synchronic vs diachronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study.

3) speech and writing: speech and writing are the two major media of communication.

4) language and parole: the distinction between language and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.

5) competence and performance: similar to Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950. He defines competence as the ideal user‘s knowl edge of the rules of his language and performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussure‘s distinction and Chomsky‘s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social convention and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

6) traditional grammar and modern linguistics. It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F.de, Saussure‘s book ‖course in general linguistics ‖ in the early 20th sentury.

7) some views:1. linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written. Traditional tended to emphsis the importance of written word.3.modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.

1.2.1definitions of language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

1.elements of language are combined according to rules

https://www.360docs.net/doc/6218023805.html,nguage is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for primary medium for all language is sound.3 language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4the term‖human‖in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific

1.2.2Design features of language

1.Arbitrariness任意性(This means that there is no logical connection between meanings sound.

i.e. different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.)

2.productivity 能产性有限的词汇能创造无限的句子(language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Productivity is unique to human language)

3.duality双层性1,声音结构2,,表达意思(language is a system ,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.but the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words,which are found ar the higher level of the system.)

4.displacement移位性可以描述不在眼前的东西(language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined mattera in the past ,present ,or future,or in far away pleces.in other words ,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.)

5.cultural transmission文化传递性语言风格被文化所影响(human capacity for language has

a genetic basis)

1.2.3Functions of language

1,the descriptive function传达信息2,the expressive function表达情感3,the social function 社会功能,维系人际关系

2,Six basic functions by Roman Jakobson: Addresser-emotive(I hate whatever they are planning for me)addressee-conative(Why not go and see another doctor?)context-referential(As far as I know ,the earth‘s resources are being astonishingly wasted.)message-poetic(As poetry)contact-phatic communion(Hi !how are you this morning?)code-metalinguistic(Let me tell you what the word ?anorexia‘ means.)

3.M.A.K. Halliday three macrofunctions: the ideational 概念功能Is to organize the speaker or writer‘s experience of the real or imaginary world. the interpersonal人际功能Is to indicate ,establish ,or maintain social relationships between people.the textual语篇功能Is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.

chapater2 Phonology音位学

2.1 The phonic medium of language

Linguists are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language语言的语音媒介, and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds

2.2 Phonetics

2.2.1 what is phonetics?

Phonetics语音学is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.

Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics发音语音学,auditory phonetics听觉语音学,acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

2.2.2 Organs of speech

Articulatory apparatus发音部位:pharyngeal cavity咽腔,oral cavity口腔,nasal cavity鼻腔2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds语音正字法表征—broad and narrow transcriptions宽式和严式标音

International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription

Broad transcription: letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription: letter-symbols together with the diacritics(变音符)

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants

2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonants

Manner of articulation发音方式分:stops闭塞音([p],[b][t][d][k][g]) fricatives摩擦音([f][v][s][z][?][?][θ][e][h]) affricates塞擦音([t?][d?])liquids流音([l][r])nasals鼻音([m][n][ ?])glides=semivowel([w][j])

Place of articulation发音部位分:bilabial双唇音([p][b][m][w])labiodental唇齿音([f][v])dental 齿音([θ][e])alveolar齿龈音([d][s][z][n][l][r])palatal腭音([?][?] [t?][d?][j])velar软腭音([g][ ?])gottal喉音([h])

2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowels

舌头位置分:front central back;嘴巴张开程度分:close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open

vowels, open vowels;嘴型分:unrounded, rounded;长短分:long, short;单元音:monophthongs 双元音diphthongs

2.3Phonology音位学

2.3.1phonology音位学:有意义的音,位置和发音。Phonetics语音学:什么音怎么发。

2.3.2Phone, phoneme, allophone

Phone音素: phonetic unit or segment;Phoneme音位: phonological unit;Allophone音位变体: a phoneme in different phonetic environments

例/t/-[t][d],一个音位,两个音素.[t][d]为/t/的音位变体,属于同一个音位

2.3.3Phonemic contrast音位对立complementary distribution互补分布minimal pair最小对立体

Phonemic contrast:two distinctive phonemes(/p//b/ in [pit] and [bit])

complementary distribution同一个音位的音位变体形成

minimal pair:two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment(pill and till)

minimal set:最小对立集(beat bit bet bat boot but bait bite boat)

2.3.4 Some rules in phonology

2.3.4.1 Sequential rules(序列规则):the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.

2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule (同化规则):the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. (“impossible”instead of “inpossible”as the {n} sound is assimilated to {m})

2.3.4.3 Deletion rule (省略规则):a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.(sign, design, paradigm, no sound ”g”)

2.3.5 Suprasegmental features(超音段特征)---stress(重音),tone(声调),intonation(语调) Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments

2.3.5.1 Stress: word stress and sentence stress名词重音在第一个音节,动词重音在第二个音节2.3.5.2 Tone: tones are pitch variations which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.---level(阴平),the second rise(阳平),the third fall-rise(上声),the fourth fall(去声) 2.3.5.3 Intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone

Chapter3 Morphology形态学

3.1. Introduction

The term morphology refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.

3.2. Open class and closed class

Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary which are called open class words. Conjunctions, preposition, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functional" words, which referred to as closed class words.

3.3.morphemes —the minimal units of meaning词素——最小的意义单位

The word as the smallest free form found in language.The morpheme—the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. A morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.

1). Free and bound morphemes自由词素与黏着词素

A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme, whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.

2). Allomorphs 词素变位:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.

3.4. Analyzing word structures:Roots and affixes

3.5. Derivational and inflectional morphemes派生词素与屈折词素

When derivational morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes, new words are derived,or formed.A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unite of meaning.

Inflectional morphemes are bound morpheme which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but never change their syntactic category.

3.6. Morphological rules of word formation.

Morphological rules are called productive morphological rules and it may be productive or less

productive.

3.7. Derivation派生

Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its bases. Sometimes derivation can apply more than once; it is possible to create multiple levels of word structure, but derivation is also subject to special constraints and restriction. A derivational affix attaches only to bases with particular phonological prosperities.

3.8. Compounds 复合词:Compounds is stringing words together.

a.When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.

b.In many cases, the two words fall into different categories. Then the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound. But compounds with a preposition are in

c.the category of the non-prepositional part of the compoun

d.例:undertake inaction uplift

https://www.360docs.net/doc/6218023805.html,pound have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence

f.The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.

4.1 What is syntax?

·Syntax(句法学) is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.

4.2 Categories(范畴)

·Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.

·Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. (句法范畴)

·Noun(N)--Determiner(Det)--the, a, this, those; Verb(V)--Degree words(Deg)--quite, very, more, so; Adjective(A)--Qualifier(Qual)--often, always, seldom; Preposition(P)--Auxiliary(Aux)--must, should, can, might; Conjunction (Con)--and, but, or

·Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语)

·most comment phrasal categories

Noun phrase (NP):the pretty girl; Verb phrase (VP): often dream; Adjective phrase (AP): very impressive; Prepositional phrase (PP):mainly about

·Phrases are formed of head (主干),specifier (标志语),complement(补语)主干左边的是标志语,右边的是补语。

4.3 Phrase structure rule(短语结构规则)

·Special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.

NP→(Det)N(PP); VP→(Qual)V(NP);AP→(Deg)A(PP);PP→(Deg)P(NP)The arrow can be read as ―consists of ‖ or ―branches into‖.

·XP rule: The XP rule→(specifier)X(complement)

·Coordination rule并列规则:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or.

·1.no number limit 2. A category at any level can be coordinated, 3. Coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.

4.4 phrase elements 短语元素

4.4.1 specifiers

Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.If the heads are Ns, the specifiers are determiners. If the

Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose

existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. The information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization. 次节制化

4.4.3 modifiers 修饰语

5.1Semantics(语义学) can be simply defined as the study of meaning.

5.2.1The naming theory(命名论)(proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels for the objects they stand for. Limitations: nouns only (excluding the things not existing the real world and physical objects, but abstract notions)

5.2.2The conceptualism view(概念论):in the interpretation of meaning, the link between a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle(语义三角) or triangle of significance(意义三角)

5.2.3Contextualism(语境论):one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context. A representative of the approach---J.R.Firth, he is influenced by Malinowski and Wittgenstein. Two kinds of context are organized: the situational context(情景语境)and the linguistic context(语言语境)

5.2.4Behaviorism:define the meaning of a language form of as the ―situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer‖. It is close to contextualism, linked with psychological interest.

5.3.Lexical meaning(词汇意义)

5.3.1 sense and reference(意义和指称)

Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

5.3.2 Major sense relations

5.3.2.1 synonymy(同义现象):

the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms(同义词)

1)Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)---synonyms used in different regional dialects。(autumn&fall; lift&elevator)2)Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词)---synonyms differing in style (kid, child, offspring)3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning (collaborator, accomplice)4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义词) (accuse of,charge with, rebuke for)5) Semantically different synonyms(语义不同的同义词)(amaze,astound)

5.3.2.2 Polysemy(多义现象) (table)

5.3.2.3 Homonymy(同音异义) Homophones(同音异义):night/knight,piece/peace Homographs(同形异义):bow/bow tear/tear Complete homonyms: fast adj /fast v scale n/scale v

5.2.3.4 Hyponymy(上下义关系):refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

Superordinate:the word which is more general in meaning. Hyponyms:the more specific words. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.

5.3.2.5 Antonymy (反义关系)

Antonyms : words that are opposite in meaning

1Gradable antonyms( 等级反义词) (middle-aged, mature, elder)2Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)(male, female)3Relational opposites(关系反义词) (husband,wife)

5.4 Sense relations between sentences

1) X is synonymous with Y 2) X is inconsistent with Y 3) X entails Y( Y is an entailment of

X) 4) X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) 5) X is a contradiction.(句子内部) 6) X is semantically anomalous.

8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society

Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.

Indication of the inter-relationship between language and society

Language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships.

The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. Language reflects both the physical and social environments of a society.

8.1.2 speech community and speech variety

The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community(言语社会)

Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, and registers.

8.1.3 two approaches to sociolinguistic studies

We can look at society as a whole,or from the point of view of an individual member.

8.2.1 regional dialect 地域方言

A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region .

8.2.1.2

Sociolect 社会方言

Social-class dialect, or sociolect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.

Accent is an important marker of sociolect received pronunciation (RP)

8.2.1.3 language and gender

Female speakers are heard to use the low-rise intonation with statements much more frequently than male speakers

Some adjectives of evaluation are used more frequently by females than by males

Female speech is less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech

8.2.1.5 idiolect

Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.

8.2.1.6 ethnic dialect

An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.

Black English has its own features at the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical level.

Problems: consonant deletion rule. Sentence without copula verb 系动词,the use of double negation constructions.

8.2.2 register

The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire(语言变体库)

British linguist Halliday‘s register theory, ―language varies as its function varies; it differs in

different situations.

Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discouse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式)”

Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language

Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question

Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.

Mode of discourse is the distinction between speaking and writing.

8.2.3 degree of formality

An American linguistic Martin Joos, distinguishes five stages of formality, namely

1.intimate 2, casual 3. consultative 4. formal 5. frozen.

8.3 standard dialect

the standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language

features for standard variety:

1.it is a local speech of a area which is considered the nation‘s political and commercial center.

2.the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his region dialect. It is a

superimposed variety.

3.the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designed as the official or national

language of a country on any formal occasions.

8.4 pidgin and Creole

A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.

When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.

8.5 bilingualism and diglossia 双语

Two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.

The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959. instead of two different languagesm in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community. Diglossia, Two varieties, the high variety(H) and the low variety(L)

Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situation with very little overlapping.

9.2

Culture, in a broad sense, means integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief and behavior that is both a result of and integral to human capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture

There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.

9.3 the relationship between language and culture

Language reflects the people‘s attitudes, beliefs, points of views and ways of life. In a word, language expresses cultural reality.

A language system of signs with their own cultural substance and values, may be viewed as a symbol of social identity. Language symbolizes cultural reality.

They speak of discourse communities.(话语社区),constitute different discourse accents. Culture also affects a discourse community‘s imagination, or common dreams

Just as speech behavior is one variety of social behavior, linguistic competence is a variety of cultural competence. The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.

9.4 spair-whorf hypothesis

Sapir and whorf believe that language filters people‘s perception and the way they categorize their experience. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH)

Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people‘s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the later.

9.5 linguistic evidence of cultural difference.

Denotative, connotative, or iconic

9.6 culture contact, cultural overlap and diffusion :

Three forms of culture contact are identified :1. acculturation(文化适应), assimilation(同化)and amalgamation (合并、统一)

There exist a greater or lesser degree of cultural overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings.

Some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.

a tendency of cultural imperialism, owing to linguistic imperialism.

9.8 intercultural communication.

Intercultural communication, also known as cross-cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.

10.1

Language acquisition refers to a child‘s acquisition of his mother tongue

10.2 theories of child language acquisition

The behaviorist(行为主义者观点),the innatist(天赋主义学),the interactionist (互动主义观点)

10.2.1 behaviorist

Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.

The chief exponent of the behaviourist view is B. F. Skinners

It fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structure of the language

10.2.2 innatist

Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability know as Language Acquisition Device, or LAD.(语言习得机制)

Later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as universal grammar(UG).

10.2.3 interactionist

The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows “motherese” or “child direct speech (CDS)” or caretaker talk to make them understood.

10.3 cognitive development in child language development

The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways. First, language

development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. Secondly, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses

10.4 language environment and the critical period hypothesis.

All child language acquisition theories talk about the roles of two factors to different degrees: the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn language

A specific and limited time period for language acquisition, which is referred to as the critical period hypothesis(CPH)关键期假说

10.5 stages in child language development

10.5.1 phonological development

The sequence in which the sounds are acquired works like a system of pre-requisites (先决条件)

10.5.2 vocabulary development

Under-extension (外延缩小)

Over-extension (过度延生)

10.5.3 grammatical development

Telegraphic speech contains content words which provide listeners with some information and lack the function elements.

10.6 atypical development(非典型发展)

Atypical language development may occur due to trauma or injury.

Including hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.

Second language acquisition (SLA)

Whether the target language (TL) to be learned is called a second language(SL or L2) or a foreign language depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country. 11.2 connections between first language and second language

Interlanguage or learner language, according to selinker‘s definition, is defined as an abstract system of learners‘ target language system and 2.it has now been widely used to refer the linguistic expressions learners produce,3.especially the wrong or not idiomatic ones.

Fossilization has become one of the main features of interlanguage. Some experts related this to the learners‘ partial access or no access to the universal grammar.

11.3 contrastive analysis(CA)

The native language took on great significance for it was regarded as the major cause for lack of success in learning a second language or foreign language: A distinction was made between positive transfer and negative transfer.

11.4 error analysis

Two main sorts of errors are diagnosed : interlingual errors(语际错误) and intralingual errors (语内错误)

Intralingual errors: overgeneralization (过度概括),cross-association(互相联想)。Mistake(语误)和error(错误)

Performance analysis

11.5 interlanguage

Interlanguage is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or

approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.

The three important characteristics of the interlinguistics – systematicity(系统性),permeability (渗透性)and fossilization(语言石化permanent part).

11.7 second language learning models and input hypothesis.(输入假说)

Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language leaning : acquisition(习得) and learning(学习)。

Comprehensible input (可理解输入) is slightly above the learners‘ current level.

11.8 individual differences

Language aptitude (语言学能)

Motivation(动机):1、instrumental motivation(工具性动机) 2、integrative motivation (融入性动机) 3、resultative motivation (结果动机) 4、intrinsic motivation(内在动机) Learning strategies

Cognitive strategies(认识策略)

Metacognitve strategies (元认知策略)

Affect/social strategies(情感,社会策略)

Age of acquisition –critical period hypothesis 关键期假说

Personality 性格

11.9 second language acquisition and its pedagogical implication (教学启示)

In classroom second language learning setting, three key features, which are modified input, modified interaction and focus on form, help to build up its own uniqueness and learning effects as well.

unit12

Two sub-branches of linguistic, namely, neurolinguistics, and psycholinguistic s Neurolinguistics is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language.

The brain consists of about ten billion nerve cells called neurons(神经元)。

The brain is divided into two sections: the lower section called the brain stem (脑干) and the higher section called cerebrum(大脑)

Methods for the study of the brain and evidences for lateralization

1)Autopsy studies(尸体解剖研究)

2)Methods to study the brain

1.SAT 阿米妥纳

2.CT scanning

3.PET(计算机…)

4.MRI(核磁共振)

5.Fmri

3)methods to examine the behavior associated with the brain

1. dichotic listening (双耳分听) – right ear advantage(REA)

2.spilt brain studies (裂脑实验)

Aphasia(失语症)

1)Broca’s aphasia(表达性失语)-damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus will cause non-fluent aphasia(非流利失语症). The most sever form of non-fluent aphasia is global aphasia (整体失语症)syntactically, broca‘s aphasics produce telegraphic(电报式言语)。

2)Wernicke‘s aphasia(韦尼克失语症)

Fluent aphasia: damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of a aphasia. They can speak very fluently with normal pronunciation and intonation and correct word order but often with little semantic meaning. The most important type of fluent aphasia

3) acquired dyslexia(习得性失语症)

Definition: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading ability.

3 key types of acquired dyslexia: phonological dyslexia(音位失读症), surface dyslexia(表层失读症), deep dyslexia(深层失读症).

Psycholinguistics:

Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.

Research methods: 1.field work (实地调查)—one kind of humorous slips of the tongue called spoonerisms.2. experimental methods(实验方法)—lexical decision(frequency effect) and priming (启动实验 priming effect) ; timed – reading experiment , eye movement , event-related potential experiment(ERP).

Linguistics and language processing

Bottom-up processing

Top-down processing

Morphological processing

1.Selectional restriction (选择限制)

2.hierarchical structure(等级结构) Syntax: 1.garden path sentence : minimal attachment and late closure 2.sentence ambiguity

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Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;

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语言学概论重点总结 一、名词解释(4*6=24) 1、孤立语:孤立语又称词根语,其特点是缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示,汉语就是一种比较典型的孤立语。例如,“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语,“他”是宾语,主要取决于词序。又如,“买菜”是述宾结构,“买的菜”是偏正结构,主要取决于虚词。汉语缺乏严格意义上的形态变化,一个名词性词语无论是充当句子的主语还是宾语,词性都不曾发生变化。除了汉语外,属孤立语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。 2、屈折语:屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折。内部屈折指通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)来构成不同的语法形式,表示不同的语法意义;如阿拉伯语以固定的辅音框架表示语汇意义,以元音交替表示不同的语法意义。 外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。例如英语的book(书,单数)在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books(书,复数)。 屈折语的一个构型词缀可以同时表示几种语法意义,例如英语的-s在动词后面表示第三人称、单数、现在时、主动语态,如works. 同样的语法意义,在不同的词里也可以用不同的词缀来表示,如俄语中性名词单数主格的词尾有-o(如neop钢笔),-e(noπe田地)。 屈折语的词根和构型词缀结合得很紧,如果去掉构型词缀,词根往往就不能成词,如俄语nepo去掉词尾-o,nep-就不能独立使用。 印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等,一般都属于屈折语,其中俄语和德语是最典型的屈折语。 3、音位:是某种语言中能区别语素或词的语音形式的最小语音单位,是依据语音的社会属性划分出来的语音类别。 音位本身并不含有任何意义。音位只有在和别的音位组合成高一层级的单位后才能负载意义。如单个的/k/和/ae/或/t/是没有什么意义的,但是他们组合成了[caet](cat)之后就有了“猫”的意义。因此,音位只有区别音形进而区别意义的作用,而没有表达意义的作用。 音位分析的目的是要把语言里数目繁多的语言归纳为数目有限的一套音位系统,分析音位的三基本原则是:对立、互补、语音相似。 音位可以分为音质音位和非音质音位两大类。一般把音素的音质角度分析归并出来的音位叫音质音位,因为它占有一个时段,所以又叫音段音位。除了音质以外,音高、音强、音长这些非音质形式也能区别词的语音形式,由这些韵律(音律)形式构成的音位叫非音质音位。又叫超音段音位。包括调位、重位、时位。 调位:主要由音高特征构成的音位叫调位,又叫声调。调位是汉藏语系诸语言中区别词的语言形式的重要手段之一。 重位:主要由音强特征构成的音位叫重位。重音在英语、俄语中是区别词的语音形式和词义的重要手段。构成重位的非音质特征是综合的。 时位:由音长特征构成的音位叫时位。长短音的区别主要表现在元音上,如广东话和许多少数民族语言里,时位都有区别词的语音形式和意义的作用。 4、语流音变就是指在连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。有时说话人由于种种原因调整语音的快慢、高低、强弱,也会造成语音的某种变化。

语言学教程[第五章意义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习.

第五章意义 复习笔记 I.语义学 语义学是对语言单位,尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。 II.意义 1.意义 在语言学中,意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。 2.内涵 按照哲学界的用法,内涵和外延相对,指的是一个词所指称的实体的特性。 3.外延 外延涉及语言单位跟非语言实体之间的关系。在这个意义上,它跟指称意义是一样的。 4.意义的不同类型 (1概念意义 逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。 (2联想意义 ①内涵意义:通过语言所指所传达的意义。 ②社会意义:所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。 ③感情意义:所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。

④反射意义:通过同一表达方式的其他意思所传达的意义。 ⑤搭配意义:通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。 (3主位意义 通过顺序和重音这种组织信息的方式所传达的意义。主位意义是最边缘的意义,因为它只由语序及重音所决定。 5.语境论 语境论是建立在如下假设之上:意义源于语境,存在于语境。语境有两种:情景语境和上下文。所有的话语都是在特定的时空情景下产生的,除了话语产生的时间地点以外,情景因素还包括说话人和听话人、他们当时的行为以及情景中所存在的物与事。 上下文不仅涉及词与其他词的搭配,这种搭配构成词义的一部分,即搭配意义,它也涉及特定话语的前后部分。 6.行为主义 行为主义理论把意义定义为说话者说话的环境以及听者的反应。 Ⅲ.指称理论 1.定义 把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论,叫做指称理论。 2.语义三角 奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出了语义三角的理论。他们认为词与所指事物之间没有直接的关系。它们是以概念为中介的。概念是抽象的,没有物质存在,只能通过我们的思维来感知。

语言学第七章知识点总结

语言学第七章知识点总结 Language is an essential part of a given culture. It is an indispensable carrier of culture. It is regarded as a mirror of society. In primitive culture, the meaning of a word greatly depended on its occurrence in a given context. Firth-Context of Situation -illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrence factors. 1.The relevant features of the participants, persons, and personalities The verbal action of the participants; the non-verbal action of the participant 2.The relevant objects 3.The effects of the verbal action Speech Community It refers to a group of people share the same rules of speaking and one linguistic variety as well. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Our language helps mould our way of thinking. Different languages may probably express speakers' unique ways of understanding the world. https://www.360docs.net/doc/6218023805.html,nguage may determine our thinking patterns

语言学第一二章知识点

Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性(创造性) Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 5.语言能力Competence(抽象) Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance(具体) Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。 7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言langue(抽象) The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语parole(具体) The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性Prescriptive It aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性Descriptive A linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点 https://www.360docs.net/doc/6218023805.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity ca rried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 2.几种观点和现象的提出者: ⑴瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure :Langue和parole的区别

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版word版本

语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版

Chapter 4 4.1 syntactic (句法的) relations 4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系) For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause. Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential (有序的) arrangement of words in a language. Positional relation are a manifestation(表现)of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words. Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO. 4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性) Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure. Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set. This is what Saussure called associative(联想的) relations or in Hjemslev ’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation. 4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现) Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations. 4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents 4.2.1 Grammatical construction Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位) 4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分) Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: S NP VP De t N V NP De t N The girl ate the apple

语言学重点总结

Chapter 6 Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach. The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning. The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception, memory, and attention to reasoning. The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language. Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language. Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition Language acquisition: ①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three-word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations

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语言学概论复习要点 《语言学概论》复习要点 导言 重点名词概念:语言学、普通语言学、专语语言学、共时语言学、历时语言学 一、语言学、语言学的对象和任务 二、语言学在科学体系中的地位 三、语言学的基本类别 根据研究的对象的不同,语言学分为共时语言学和历时语言学、专语语言学和普通语言学。 四、语言学流派 各个语言学流派的观点、代表人物有所了解即可,注意布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)都属于结构主义学派,是这一学派的三个分支。关于语言学流派的具体内容阐述,不作考试要求。 第一章言语的社会功能 本章须明确两个大的要点:语言的社会功能,即交际工具和思维工具;语言是一种社会现象。 主要名词概念:语言、社会、社会现象 第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具 一、语言是人类社会的交际工具 1.语言的交际功能:语言是人类区别于其它动物的一个重要标志。语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带,是社会成员互相之间交际和交流思想的工具,也是协调社会成员行动一致的工具。 2.语言是一种社会现象:语言是一种社会现象,和人类社会有着十分紧密的联系,没有人类社会,就没有语言,人类社会以外的社会无所谓语言。所谓社会现象是指那些与人类共同体的产生、存在和发展等活动密切联系的现象。不同的民族有不同的语言,不同的地域有不同的语言,同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响,而离开了人类社会,就无所谓语言可言了。总之,语言就是一种社会现象,同社会的关系非常密切,其产生、发展等都要受到社会的影响。 语言不是自然现象,一方面,语言同社会有着十分紧密的联系,社会的发展变化直接影响着语言的发展变化,也就是说,语言的发展变化是受制于社会的;另一方面,从语言的音义联系看语言不是自然现象,而是社会约定俗成的,没有必然的本质的联系,如果语言是自然现象,世界上的语言应该一样的,没有区别的,而实际上世界上的语言多种多样,而且许多语言中还有方言,这说明语言决不是自然现象。 3.语言是一种特殊的社会现象:语言不但是社会现象,而且是一种特殊的社会现象。语言

语言学知识点

IC analysis直接成分分析法: It refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents word groups, which are in turn analysised into the immediate constituents of their own and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. Garden path花园小径现象: there are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. It typically takes quite a long time to figure out what the other structure is if the first choice turn out to be incorrect. They have been led up the garden path, fooled into thinking the sentence has a different structure than it has. Interlanguage中介语: the type of language constructed by second or foreign learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understand as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language. Foregrounding前景化: it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”, involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology, etc. Relevance Theory关联理论: this theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Congnition in 1986. they argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. The Cooperative Principle合作原则: four categories of maxims as follows: Quantity 1. make your contribution as informative as is required. 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality Try to make your contribution one that is true 1.Do not say what you believe to be false. 2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation Be relevant Manner Be perspicuous. 1.Avoid obscurity of expression. 2.Avoid ambiguity. 3.Be breif 4.Be orderly 跨文化交际中应注意什么? 1.When in Rome do as the Romans do 2.Put yourself in other’s shoes 3.One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison. 4.Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding. Culture in language teaching classroom 1.to get the students familiar with cultural differences. 2.to help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will 3.to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. All this lesds to a belief that a good understanding of structural things in some cases has much to do with a conscious understanding of the cultural background of the target language for language learners. Metaphor隐喻involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience. Categorization范畴化is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. Psycholinguistics心理语言学is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within psycholinguistics: acquisition, comprehension, production, disorders, language and thought, neurocognition. Cognition认知is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement. Sentence Meaning句子意义The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it. But it is also obvious that the former is not simply the sun total of the latter. Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. The Referential Theory指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory. Syntax句法is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures Syntactic relations句法关系can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relation. Relation of substitutability, and relation of co-occurrence. Morpheme语素is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology形态字, which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Suprasegmental features超音段特征are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation. The word phoneme音位simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts. Features of language Arbitrariness随意性the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Duality二元性the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Creativity创造性resourceful because of its duality and ite recursiveness. Displacement移位性means that human beings enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication. Language is a system of arbitary vocal symbols used for human communication. The definiation has captured the main features of languages: human-specific, arbitary, symbolic, systematic

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