武汉大学博士英语期末考试资料整理(2018.6.5更新)

武汉大学博士英语期末考试资料整理(2018.6.5更新)

1．段落分析

Developing Paragraph/Body（正文/主体）

1. Unity (一致性)—topic sentence切题，与开篇提出的论点相关

2. Development (发展性)—supporting sentences no more than 5 aspects论据是否充分

Common Methods of Development

exemplification 例证

1)facts事实

2)citation引证

3)comparison and contrast比较与对比

4)analysis分析

5)classification分类

3. Coherence (连贯性):主要指段落中的句子与句子之间在逻辑上和结构上的相互连贯—条理清楚、层次分明、衔接自然。

General rule by classification总原则：from the most important to the least important or versa vice 由重到轻，反之亦然（由轻到重：hierarchical structure/build-up expansion）

1)by transitions/signposts过渡词/路标词

2)by repetition of key words

3)by synonyms or variations of key words

4)by reference words (e.g.: this, these, that, those, one, ones)

5)from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神

6)from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理

7)from individual to social aspects从个体到社会

8)from oneself to others从自身到他人

9)from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接

10)from physical environment to economic, social and cultural structure从地理环境到社会、

经济和文化结构

Concept-defining

1. Content 内容（from paragraph level 段落）

Topic 话题—笼统→ Perspective 角度—抽象→ Aspect 方面—具体

1）Topic 话题：what to write – general 笼统（topic sentence）

2）Perspective (point of view/viewpoint) 角度/视点→ 展开素材

3）Aspect (part/side) 方面/层面→ 体现素材(supporting sentences)

from material to spiritual aspects从物质到精神

from physical to psychological aspects从身体到心理

from general to specific从笼统到具体

from idea/mentality to behavior从思想到行为

from people to organization/government

from technological to social aspects = from technology to society/from science to society from individual to social aspects从个体到社会

from oneself to others从自身到他人

from direct to indirect aspects从直接到间接

from physical environment to economic, social and cultural structure从地理环境到社会、经济和文化结构

2. Form/Function形式（from passage level 篇章）

Structure: the organization of the whole article

Introduction (what)

Body (why)

Conclusion (how)

3. Paragraph development 段落的展开

How to arrange the material to develop/illustrate/elaborate/support the topic sentence

1) Skill: knowledge & ability that enables you to so sth well

Skill form:技巧/形式→展开素材：支持句的表现形式，外在的（supporting sentence）Skill > method

1)(by) Statistics统计

2)(by) Examples例证

3)(by) Statements阐述

4)(by) Quotation引言

2) Method/order: way of arrangement

Method/order/pattern: content方法/布局→排列组合素材；支持句排列组合方式，内在的

1)topic order（subtitle）

2)causal order = cause and effect

3)spatial order = space order

4)chronological order = time order

5)problem and solution

6)means and ends

7)process and result

8)classification

9)hierarchical structure 分层次、等级的(from least to most)

10)antithesis对照（from positive to negative）

11)progression递进：a gradual process of change or developing over period of time 一段时

间内的变化发展过程

12)comparison and contrast比较与对比

13)by definition 下定义

Note：平行结构是指在论证某个观点或论题时，将其分解成具有一定联系的几个方面加以论述，而这几个方面都是从属于中心论题或观点的，他们之间地位平等，呈平行关系。

英语中的平行结构指的是内容相似，结构相同，无先后顺序，无因果关系的并列句。

4. Logic relationship (from passage level) (what, why, how)

Logical relationship between topic sentence (主题句永远都是what) and supporting sentences (why and/or how) in the form of : what-why-how/what-how-why/what-how/what-why

1) Cause and effect因果关系=why & how

2) Means and ends = process and purpose = how手段和目的；过程和结果

3) Topic/idea and reason (introduction) = what & why

4) Problem and solution = what & how

5) Example = how

PS：本次期末考试（2018.7.3）的段落分析范围：第一课第三、十二段，第八课第二、四、六、八、十二段第一课的第三段：

Our second major discovery was that the Information Marketplace will dramatically affect people and organizations on a wide scale.Besides its many uses in commerce, office work, and manufacturing, it will also improve health care, provide new ways to shop, enable professional and social encounters across the globe, and generally permeate the thousands of things we do in the course of our daily lives. It will help us pursue old and new pleasures, and it will encourage new art forms, which may be criticized but will move art forward, as new tools have always done. It will also improve education and training, first in specific and established ways and later through breakthroughs that are confidently awaited. Human organizations from tiny companies to entire national governments will benefit too, because so much of the work they do is information work.

第一课的第十二段：

The wise eye will also see that the Information Marketplace is much influential than its parts—the interfaces, middleware and pipes that make up the three-story building on which we stand. Once they are integrated, they present a much greater power—t he power to prevent an asthmatic from dying in a remote town in Alaska, to enable an unemployed bank loan officer to find and succeed at a new form of work, to allow a husband and wife to revel in the accomplishments of a distant daughter while also providing emotional and financial support. These powers are far greater than the ability to send an e-mail message, or to have five hundred TV channels.

Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies.In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate Mayan temples lie mute, as do an untold number of Incan monuments in Peru, Celtic cairns in Wales, Khmer statues in Cambodia, and magnificent ziggurat-like structures in central Africa.

第八课的第二段：

Easter Island, celebrated for the giant statues left by its vanished civilization, is unique in archaeology because of its isolation from its neighbors. Current archaeological evidence indicates that some 1,600 years ago the island’s first settlers, explorers from Polynesia, found themselves in a pristine paradise with subtropical forests, dozens of wild bird species, and no predators.They multiplied and prospered, distributing resources in a manner that suggests a sophisticated economy and complex political system. Rival clans erected ever-larger statues on platforms, emulating the stone carvings of their Polynesian forebears, trying to surpass each other with displays of power and wealth.

It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately. An islander might easily have missed the long-term trend, thinking: “This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow back again over here.” Furthermore, any islander who issued a warning against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the status quo to retain their positions and privileges.

第八课的第六段：

Humanity may not act in time to prevent the decimation of the rain forests, fossil fuels, arable land, and fisheries. In only 40 years, Ethiopia’s forest cover shrank from 30% to 1%. During the same time period, the rest of the world lost half of its rain forests. Powerful decision-making groups ignore those who sound an alarm; their political, economic, and religious agendas fail to address the problem of disappearing natural resources.

第八课的第八段：

If we are going to avoid the fate of the Easter Islanders, we must change the myths that are leading us toward extinction and find inspiring visions of a plausible and appealing future. The old myths have collapsed, but no new ones have emerged to fill the vacuum. For transformation to occur, human beings must actively shape the future, an enterprise that goes to the heart of mythmaking. If

we are each a cell in what Peter Russell calls “The Global Brain,” then this is an individual as well a collective venture.

第八课的第十二段：

But as the Grand Narrative of Progress came to dominate other values and views, it cast a malignant shadow.The invention of the automobile was the quintessence of progress, but it left overcrowded highways, air pollution, and deforestation in its wake. Fertilizers increased crop production but also increased the growth of algae in lakes and canals. The discovery of powerful insecticides——first greeted with enthusiasm and a Nobel Prize——was followed by the unintentional poisoning of fish, birds, and animals. Nuclear power plants increased available energy but led to storage problems, life-threatening contamination, and at least one accident with worldwide repercussions. The waste products of technological living began to choke great cities and foul once-pristine lands. Although Western housing, clothing, and religion were brought to aboriginal people, and the rate of infectious disease went down, the rate of alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, and spouse and child abuse went up.

第八课的第二十五段：

The third principle is to identify real-life situations in which antagonists can find common ground. With a recognition of the limitations of linguistic exchange, postmodernists urge that groups “press beyond dialogue.” For example, athletes and musicians from all walks of life can generate smooth and effective teams or musical groups. Business executives and scientists from conflicting backgrounds are often able to work together to generate multinational corporations and cooperative research undertakings.

2. 文章结构分析

第八课1-4段

Countless cultures around the world have disappeared, along with their mythologies. In Mesoamerica, dozens of ornate Mayan temples lie mute, as do an untold number of Incan monuments in Peru, Celtic cairns in Wales, Khmer statues in Cambodia, and magnificent ziggurat-like structures in central Africa.

Easter Island, celebrated for the giant statues left by its vanished civilization, is unique in archaeology because of its isolation from its neighbors. Current archaeological evidence indicates that some 1,600 years ago the island’s first settlers, explorers from Polynesia, found themselves in a pristine paradise with subtropical forests, dozens of wild bird species, and no predators. They multiplied and prospered, distributing resources in a manner that suggests a sophisticated economy and complex political system. Rival clans erected ever-larger statues on platforms, emulating the stone carvings of their Polynesian forebears, trying to surpass each other with displays of power and wealth.

Eventually, as the island’s population grew to 20,000 people, the forests were cut more rapidly than they regenerated. Trees were transformed into fuel, canoes, and houses, as well as rollers and ropes to transport the gigantic stone heads. In time, the absence of wood for sea going canoes reduced the fish catches, while erosion and deforestation diminished crop yields. The growing populace consumed the local bird and animal populations. When the island could no longer feed its human population, the political and religious oligarchy that had directed and distributed the local resources began to languish. Many archaeologists believe the ruling class was overthrown by warriors. In the

ensuing disorder, clan fought clan fought clan, toppling and desecrating each other’s statues. When the Europeans arrived on Easter Sunday, 1772, the once-fertile island was barren and desolate. Its remaining inhabitants, only a fraction of the numbers a few generations earlier, were heirs to a once-greater society that had degenerated into violence, starvation, and cannibalism.

It is likely that changes in the forest occurred over decades and would have been difficult to detect immediately. An islander might easily have missed the long-term trend, thinking: “This year we cleared those woods over there, but trees are starting to grow ba ck again over here.” Furthermore, any islander who issued a warning against the oncoming disaster would have been silenced by the ruling class. Chiefs, priests, and stone carvers all depended on the status quo to retain their positions and privileges.