外文翻译---轴承的摩擦与润滑

附录1 外文文献的中文译文

轴承的摩擦与润滑

现在看来，有很多这种情况，许多学生在被问到关于摩擦的问题时，往往都没引起足够的重视，甚至是忽视它。实际上，摩擦从某种程度上说，存在于任何两个相接触并有相对运动趋势的部件之间。而摩擦这个词，本身就意味着，两个或两个以上部件的阻止相对运动趋势。

在一个机器中，运动部件的摩擦是有害的，因为它降低了机械对能量的充分利用。由它引起的热能是一种浪费的能量。因为不能用它做任何事情。还有，它还需要更大的动力来克服这种不断增大的摩擦。热能是有破坏性的。因为它产生了膨胀。而膨胀可以使得轴承或滑动表面之间的配合更紧密。如果因为膨胀导致了一个足够大的积压力，那么，这个轴承就可能会卡死或密封死。另外，随着温度的升高，如果不是耐高温材料制造的轴承，就可能会损坏甚至融化。

在运动部件之间会发生很多摩擦，如

1.启动摩擦

2.滑动摩擦

3.转动摩擦。

启动摩擦是两个固体之间产生的倾向于组织其相对运动趋势的摩擦。当两个固体处于静止状态时，这两个零件表面的不平度倾向于相互嵌入，形成楔入作用，为了使这些部件“动”起来。这些静止部件的凹谷和尖峰必须整理光滑，而且能相互抵消。这两个表面之间越不光滑，由运动造成的启动摩擦（最大静摩擦力）就会越大。

因为，通常来说，在两个相互配合的部件之间，其表面不平度没有固定的图形。一旦运动部件运动起来，便有了规律可循，滑动就可以实现这一点。两个运动部件之间的摩擦就叫做滑动摩擦。启动摩擦通常都稍大于滑动摩擦。

转动摩擦一般发生在转动部件和设备上，这些设备“抵触”极大的外作用力，当然这种外力会导致部件的变形和性能的改变。在这种情况下，转动件的材料趋向于堆积并且强迫运动部件缓慢运动，这种改变就是通常所说的形变。可以使分子运动。当然，最终的结果是，这种额外的能量产生了热能，这是必需的。因为它可以保证运动部件的运动和克服摩擦力。

由运动部件的表面不平度的楔入作用引起的摩擦可以被部分的克服，那就需要靠两表面之间的润滑。但是，即使是非常光滑的两个表面之间也可能需要一种物质，这种物质就是通常所说的润滑剂，它可以提供一个比较好的、比较薄的油膜。这个油膜使两个表面分离，并且组织运动部件的两个表面的相互潜入，以免产生热量使两表面膨胀，又引起更近的接触。

减小摩擦的另一种方式是用不同的材料制造轴承和转动零件。可以拿黄铜轴承、铝合金和含油轴承合金做例子进行解释。也就是说用软的或硬的金属组成表面。含油轴承合金是软的。这样，当轴承在油中浸泡过以后，因为毛细管的作

用，将由带到轴承的各个表面。这种类型的轴承把它的润滑剂带到应力最大的部位。

对运动部件润滑以减小摩擦，应力和热量，最常用的是油、脂、还有合成剂。每一种润滑剂都有其各自不同的功能和用途。两个运动部件之间的运动情况决定了润滑剂的类型的选择。润滑剂的分布也决定了系统的选择。

在低速度运动的部件，一个油沟足以将所需要的数量的润滑剂送到相互运动的表面。

第二种通用的润滑方法是飞溅润滑系统，在每个周期内这个系统内一些零件经过润滑剂存储的位置，带起足够的润滑油，然后将其散布到所有的运动零件上。这种系统用于草坪修剪机中发动机的曲轴箱，对曲轴、连杆和活塞等零件进行润滑。

在工业装置中，常用的有一种润滑系统是压力系统。这种系统中，一个机器上的一个泵，可以将润滑剂带到所有的轴承表面。并且以一种连续的固定的速度和数量。

关于润滑，还有许多其他的系统，针对各种类型的润滑剂，对不同类型的运动零件是有效的。由于设备或装置的速度、压力和工作要求的提高，现代工业比以前任何时候都更注重选用适当的润滑剂。

尽管润滑的主要目的之一是为了减小摩擦力，任何可以控制两个滑动表面之间摩擦和磨损的物质，不管是液体还是固体或气体，都可以归类于润滑剂。

润滑的种类

无润滑滑动。经过精心处理的、去除了所有外来物质的金属在相互滑动时会粘附或熔接到一起。当达不到这么高的纯净度时，吸附在表面的气体、水蒸气、氧化物和污染物就会降低摩擦力并减小粘附的趋势，但通常会产生严重的磨损，这种现象被称为“无润滑”摩擦或者叫做干摩擦。

流体膜润滑。在滑动面之间引入一层流体膜，把滑动表面完全隔离开，就产生了流体膜润滑。这种流体可能是有意引入的。例如汽车主轴承中的润滑油；也可能是无意中引入的，例如在光滑的橡胶轮胎和潮湿的路面之间的水。尽管流体通常是油、水和其他很多种类的液体，它可以是气体。最常用的气体是空气。

为了把零件隔离开，润滑膜中的压力必须和作用在滑动面上的负荷保持平衡。如果润滑膜中的压力是由外源提供的，这种系统称为流体静压润滑。如果滑动表面之间的压力是由于滑动面本身的形状和运动所共同产生的，这种系统就称为流体动压力润滑。

边界润滑。处于无润滑滑动和流体膜润滑之间的润滑被称为边界润滑。它可以被定为这样一种润滑状态，在这种状态中，表面之间的摩擦力取决于表面的性质和润滑剂中的其他性质。边界润滑包括大部分润滑现象，通常在机器的启动和停止时出现。

固体润滑。当普通润滑剂没有足够的承受能力或者不能在温度极限下工作时，石墨和二硫化钼这一类固体润滑剂得到广泛应用。但润滑剂不仅仅以脂肪、

粉末和油脂这样一些为人们所熟悉的形态出现，在一些精密的机器中，金属也通常作为滑动面。

润滑剂的作用

尽管润滑剂主要是用来控制摩擦和磨损的，它们能够而且通常也确实起到许多其他的作用，这些作用随其用途不同而不同，但通常相互之间是有关系的。

控制摩擦力。滑动面之间润滑剂的数量和性质对所产生的摩擦力有很大的影响。例如，不考虑热和磨损这些相关因素，只考虑两个油膜润滑表面见的摩擦力，它能比两个同样表面，但没有润滑时小200倍。在流体润滑状况时，摩擦力与流体黏度成正比。一些诸如石油衍生物这类润滑剂，可以有很多黏度，因此能够满足范围宽广的功能要求。在边界润滑状态，润滑剂黏度对摩擦力的影响不象其化学性质的影响那么显著。

磨损控制。磨蚀、腐蚀与固体和固体之间的接触就会造成磨损。适当的润滑剂将能帮助克服上述提到的一些磨损现象。润滑剂通过润滑膜来增加滑动面之间的距离，从而减轻磨料污染物和表面不平度造成的损伤，因此，减轻了磨损和由固体与固体之间接触造成的磨损。

控制温度。润滑剂通过减小摩擦和将产生的热量带走来降低温度。其效果取决于润滑剂的用量和外部冷却措施。冷却剂的种类也会在较小的程度上影响表面的温度。

控制腐蚀。润滑剂在控制表面腐蚀方面有双重作用。当机器闲置不工作时，润滑剂起到防腐剂的作用。当机器工作时，润滑剂通过给被润滑零件涂上一层可能含有添加剂，能使腐蚀性材料中和的保护膜来控制腐蚀。润滑剂控制腐蚀的能力与润滑剂保留在金属表面的润滑膜的厚度和润滑剂的化学成分有直接的关系。

其他作用

除了减小摩擦外，润滑剂还经常有其他的用途。其中的一些用途如下所述。

传递动力。润滑剂被广泛用来作为液压传动中的工作液体。

绝缘。在象变压器和配电装置这些特殊用途中，具有很高介电常数的润滑剂起电绝缘材料的作用。为了获得最高绝缘性能，润滑剂中不能含有任何杂质和水分。

减振。在象减振器这样的能量传递装置中和在承受很高的间隙载荷的齿轮这样的机器零件的周围，润滑剂被作为减振液使用。

密封。润滑脂通常还有一个特殊作用，就是形成密封层以防止润滑剂外泻和污染物进入。

润滑的目的就是为了，减小摩擦力，降低能量损耗，减少机器的热量产生。热量就是因为表面的相互间的相对运动造成的。润滑剂可以是任何一种物质，这样的物质被填充到发生相对运动的两个表面之间，实现这一目的。大部分的润滑剂是液体，比如说，油，脂，合成剂等。但它们有时也可能是固体，用在干轴承

上，有的用在旋转基体的轴承上，或者也可能是气体，如空气等，它是用在空气轴承上。在润滑剂和润滑表面之间这种化学的和物质的相互渗入作用，就是为了提供给机器一个良好的工作状态。

对润滑剂边界的理解，往往是比较硬的，而且是流动的、非常薄的一层帖附在被润滑的表面。这些表面通常是要发生相对滑动。有些人推断，按这种理解，液体的这种化学合成是十分重要的，它们提出了这样的词“边界润滑”，边界润滑是和流体润滑相对的另一种润滑。

关于润滑的五种不同的润滑形式主要有：

（1）无润滑润滑剂。

（2）流体膜润滑。

（3）干润滑。

（4）边界润滑。

（5）固体润滑。

无润滑润滑剂是指轴承的工作表面被一种相对比较厚的液体润滑剂分隔开，于是阻止了金属表面的直接接触，这样得到的这种稳定性就可以用一种理论来解释：润滑液在外压力下工作的理论，尽管这只是一种可能。但确实需要在任何时候都得提供的足够充分。这种挤压力是运动表面本身施加给润滑剂而产生的，当然这仍然是一种可能。这种由运动表面产生的挤压力产生了必要的压力来分隔工作表面来抵抗加在轴承上的载荷。所以，这种润滑也可以被叫做液体润滑。

还有一种润滑方式，那是一种特别的润滑剂，它有时是空气或水，当加在轴承上的外载荷足够高时，它就会以一种比较厚的状态分隔开相互相对运动的工作表面。所以，不象上面的那种润滑方式，并不需要两种工作表面一定发生相对运动。

第三种润滑方式是一种现象，这种现象是，一种润滑剂是用在发生相对转动的工作表面之间。比如说齿轮或者是滚动轴承。从数学上的解释就需要接触压力和流体机械的理论。

当轴承不得不在较高的温度下工作的时候，固体润滑剂例如合成物等，必须被使用，因为通常使用的润滑油在这种情况下都不能工作。目前，在这方面的研究正在实施，为了寻找到合成轴承的材料，并且有低损耗和小的热量产生的性能。

在有的轴承上，摇杆旋转或在轴承上转动，相对运动就是滑动。在一个自锁的轴承装置中，这种相对运动就是转动。其他的装置也可能是旋转或滑动。齿轮的齿啮合是转动与相对滑动的合成。活塞是相对于刚体的滑动，所有的这些应用都需要润滑剂来减小摩擦，降低能耗，减少热量的产生。

在有些轴承的应用领域是不太成熟的。有些有连接杆的轴承，比如说汽车发动机上的，必须在几千度高的高温下和各种不同性质的载荷下工作。这种轴承用在汽轮发动设备上可以说是稳定性接近100%。还有另一种极端的情况，在有些轴承有几千种应用，应对各种不同的载荷。其他的辅助设施就相对不重要了。需要的是一个简单的、容易安装的轴承。需要很少的甚至是不需要润滑剂。在这种

情况下，有的轴承并不是最好的选择，因为成本和相近的公差。最近在轴承材料上的研究已有了一定的突破。随着对润滑的研究的知识的积累，设计出有良好工作状况和较高的稳定性的轴承已不是很遥远了。

附录2 外文文献

外文文献

Friction , Lubrication of Bearing

In many of the problem thus far , the student has been asked to disregard or neglect friction . Actually , friction is present to some degree whenever two parts are in contact and move on each other. The term friction refers to the resistance of two or more parts to movement.

Friction is harmful or valuable depending upon where it occurs. friction is necessary for fastening devices such as screws and rivets which depend upon friction to hold the fastener and the parts together. Belt drivers, brakes, and tires are additional applications where friction is necessary.

The friction of moving parts in a machine is harmful because it reduces the mechanical advantage of the device. The heat produced by friction is lost energy because no work takes place. Also , greater power is required to overcome the increased friction. Heat is destructive in that it causes expansion. Expansion may cause a bearing or sliding surface to fit tighter. If a great enough pressure builds up because made from low temperature materials may melt.

There are three types of friction which must be overcome in moving parts: (1)starting, (2)sliding, and(3)rolling. Starting friction is the friction between two solids that tend to resist movement. When two parts are at a state of rest, the surface irregularities of both parts tend to interlock and form a wedging action. To produce motion in these parts, the wedge-shaped peaks and valleys of the stationary surfaces must be made to slide out and over each other. The rougher the two surfaces, the greater is starting friction resulting from their movement .

Since there is usually no fixed pattern between the peaks and valleys of two mating parts, the irregularities do not interlock once the parts are in motion but slide over each other. The friction of the two surfaces is known as sliding friction. As shown in figure ,starting friction is always greater than sliding friction .

Rolling friction occurs when roller devces are subjected to tremendous stress which cause the parts to change shape or deform. Under these conditions, the material in front of a roller tends to pile up and forces the object to roll slightly uphill. This changing of shape , known as deformation, causes a movement of molecules. As a result ,heat is produced from the added energy required to keep the parts turning and overcome friction.

The friction caused by the wedging action of surface irregularities can be overcome partly by the precision machining of the surfaces. However, even these smooth surfaces may require the use of a substance between them to reduce the friction still more. This substance is usually a lubricant which provides a fine, thin oil

film. The film keeps the surfaces apart and prevents the cohesive forces of the surfaces from coming in close contact and producing heat .

Another way to reduce friction is to use different materials for the bearing surfaces and rotating parts. This explains why bronze bearings, soft alloys, and copper and tin iolite bearings are used with both soft and hardened steel shaft. The iolite bearing is porous. Thus, when the bearing is dipped in oil, capillary action carries the oil through the spaces of the bearing. This type of bearing carries its own lubricant to the points where the pressures are the greatest.

Moving parts are lubricated to reduce friction, wear, and heat. The most commonly used lubricants are oils, greases, and graphite compounds. Each lubricant serves a different purpose. The conditions under which two moving surfaces are to work determine the type of lubricant to be used and the system selected for distributing the lubricant.

On slow moving parts with a minimum of pressure, an oil groove is usually sufficient to distribute the required quantity of lubricant to the surfaces moving on each other .

A second common method of lubrication is the splash system in which parts moving in a reservoir of lubricant pick up sufficient oil which is then distributed to all moving parts during each cycle. This system is used in the crankcase of lawn-mower engines to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod ,and parts of the piston.

A lubrication system commonly used in industrial plants is the pressure system. In this system, a pump on a machine carries the lubricant to all of the bearing surfaces at a constant rate and quantity.

There are numerous other systems of lubrication and a considerable number of lubricants available for any given set of operating conditions. Modern industry pays greater attention to the use of the proper lubricants than at previous time because of the increased speeds, pressures, and operating demands placed on equipment and devices.

Although one of the main purposes of lubrication is reduce friction, any substance-liquid , solid , or gaseous-capable of controlling friction and wear between sliding surfaces can be classed as a lubricant.

Varieties of lubrication

Unlubricated sliding. Metals that have been carefully treated to remove all foreign materials seize and weld to one another when slid together. In the absence of such a high degree of cleanliness, adsorbed gases, water vapor ,oxides, and contaminants reduce frictio9n and the tendency to seize but usually result in severe wear; this is called “unlubricated ”or dry sliding.

Fluid-film lubrication. Interposing a fluid film that completely separates the

sliding surfaces results in fluid-film lubrication. The fluid may be introduced intentionally as the oil in the main bearing of an automobile, or unintentionally, as in the case of water between a smooth tuber tire and a wet pavement. Although the fluid is usually a liquid such as oil, water, and a wide range of other materials, it may also be a gas. The gas most commonly employed is air.

Boundary lubrication. A condition that lies between unlubricated sliding and fluid-film lubrication is referred to as boundary lubrication, also defined as that condition of lubrication in which the friction between surfaces is determined by the properties of the surfaces and properties of the lubricant other than viscosity. Boundary lubrication encompasses a significant portion of lubrication phenomena and commonly occurs during the starting and stopping off machines.

Solid lubrication.Solid such as graphite and molybdenum disulfide are widely used when normal lubricants do not possess sufficient resistance to load or temperature extremes. But lubricants need not take only such familiar forms as fats, powders, and gases; even some metals commonly serve as sliding surfaces in some sophisticated machines.

Function of lubricants

Although a lubricant primarily controls friction and ordinarily does perform numerous other functions, which vary with the application and usually are interrelated .

Friction control. The amount and character of the lubricant made available to sliding surfaces have a profound effect upon the friction that is encountered. For example, disregarding such related factors as heat and wear but considering friction alone between the same surfaces with on lubricant. Under fluid-film conditions, friction is encountered. In a great range of viscosities and thus can satisfy a broad spectrum of functional requirements. Under boundary lubrication conditions , the effect of viscosity on friction becomes less significant than the chemical nature of the lubricant.

Wear control. wear occurs on lubricated surfaces by abrasion, corrosion ,and solid-to-solid contact wear by providing a film that increases the distance between the sliding surfaces ,thereby lessening the damage by abrasive contaminants and surface asperities.

Temperature control. Lubricants assist in controlling corrosion of the surfaces themselves is twofold. When machinery is idle, the lubricant acts as a preservative. When machinery is in use, the lubricant controls corrosion by coating lubricated parts with a protective film that may contain additives to neutralize

corrosive materials. The ability of a lubricant to control corrosion is directly relatly to the thickness of the lubricant film remaining on the metal surfaces and the chermical composition of the lubricant.

Other functions

Lubrication are frequently used for purposes other than the reduction of friction. Some of these applications are described below.

Power transmission. Lubricants are widely employed as hydraulic fluids in fluid transmission devices.

Insulation. In specialized applications such as transformers and switchgear , lubricants with high dielectric constants acts as electrical insulators. For maximum insulating properties, a lubricant must be kept free of contaminants and water.

Shock dampening. Lubricants act as shock-dampening fluids in energy transferring devices such as shock absorbers and around machine parts such as gears that are subjected to high intermittent loads.

Sealing. Lubricating grease frequently performs the special function of forming a seal to retain lubricants or to exclude contaminants.

The object of lubrication is to reduce friction ,wear , and heating of machine pars which move relative to each other. A lubricant is any substance which, when inserted between the moving surfaces, accomplishes these purposes. Most lubricants are liquids(such as mineral oil, silicone fluids, and water),but they may be solid for use in dry bearings, greases for use in rolling element bearing, or gases(such as air) for use in gas bearings. The physical and chemical interaction between the lubricant and lubricating surfaces must be understood in order to provide the machine elements with satisfactory life.

The understanding of boundary lubrication is normally attributed to hardy and doubleday , who found the extrememly thin films adhering to surfaces were often sufficient to assist relative sliding. They concluded that under such circumstances the chemic al composition of fluid is important, and they introduced the term “boundary lubrication”. Boundary lubrication is at the opposite end of the spectrum from hydrodynamic lubrication.

Five distinct of forms of lubrication that may be defined :(a) hydrodynamic;

(b)hydrostatic;(c)elastohydrodynamic (d)boundary; (e)solid film.

Hydrodynamic lubrication means that the load-carrying surfaces of the bearing are separated by a relatively thick film of lubricant, so as to prevent metal contact, and that the stability thus obtained can be explained by the laws of the lubricant under

pressure ,though it may be; but it does require the existence of an adequate supply at all times. The film pressure is created by the moving surfaces itself pulling the lubricant under pressure, though it maybe. The film pressure is created by the moving surface to creat the pressure necessary to separate the surfaces against the load on the bearing . hydrodynamic lubrication is also called full film ,or fluid lubrication .

Hydrostatic lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant ,which is sometime air or water ,into the load-bearing area at a pressure high enough to separate the surface with a relatively thick film of lubricant. So ,unlike hydrodynanmic lubrication, motion of one surface relative to another is not required .

Elasohydrodynamic lubrication is the phenomenon that occurs when a lubricant is introduced between surfaces which are in rolling contact, such as mating gears or rolling bearings. The mathematical explanation requires the hertzian theory of contact stress and fluid mechanics.

When bearing must be operated at exetreme temperatures, a solid film lubricant such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide must be use used because the ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory. Must research is currently being carried out in an effort, too, to find composite bearing materials with low wear rates as well as small frictional coefficients.

In a journal bearing, a shaft rotates or oscillates within the bearing , and the relative motion is sliding . in an antifriction bearing, the main relative motion is rolling . a follower may either roll or slide on the cam. Gear teeth mate with each other by a combination of rolling and sliding . pistions slide within their cylinders. All these applications require lubrication to reduce friction ,wear, and heating.

The field of application for journal bearing s is immense. The crankshaft and connecting rod bearings of an automotive engine must poerate for thousands of miles at high temperatures and under varying load conditions . the journal bearings used in the steam turbines of power generating station is said to have reliabilities approaching 100 percent. At the other extreme there are thousands of applications in which the loads are light and the service relatively unimportant. a simple ,easily installed bearing is required ,suing little or no lubrication. In such cases an antifriction bearing might be a poor answer because because of the cost, the close ,the radial space required ,or the increased inertial effects. Recent metallurgy developments in bearing materials , combined with increased knowledge of the lubrication process, now make it possible to design journal bearings with satisfactory lives and very good reliabilities.