考研英语写作大功略—第六章 段落的写作

考研英语写作大功略—第六章 段落的写作
一篇文章可由几个自然段组成。文章中的句子和段落均为文章的中心思想服务，形成一个有机的整体。好的段落必须是意思完整，语义连贯，完全体现文章主旨中心，同时又是层次分明，结构严谨，逻辑关系应用合理的。
一、段落的组成
一个段落由三部分组成：
1．主题句（Topic Sentence）:点出段落的主题（谈论什么）。
2．扩展句（Developing Sentence）:说明和支持主题。
3．结尾句（Concluding Sentence）:得出结论。
主题名---扩展句---扩展句---扩展句---……结尾句
二、段落的主题
一篇文章有中心意思，也就是题目。而每个段落则有段落主题，段落主题是为文章中心思想服务的。
每个段落只能有一个主题（central idea），它用一个句子加以表达，所以称为主题句。主题提出后需要很多结构严谨的句子来支持和说明，称为扩展句。最后得出一个结论，并用一个结尾句表达。参看下面段落：
（主题句）Slavery in the United States existed almost unchanged for 250 years.(扩展句1)During this time, most slaves were not allowed to marry or to raise families.(扩展句2) Usually they were not allowed to learn to read.(扩展句3) It was very dangerous for a slave to travel, since even free Negroes could be kidnapped and sold at any time. (结尾句)Under these conditions, it was almost impossible for them to organize to help each other.
三、写好主题句
定义：主题句为一个完整的句子，用以概括、叙述和说明该段的主题。
位置：主题句一般位于段首，也可置于段尾或段中，考生最好放在段首，这样较易掌握和构思。例如：
位于段首：在英文中，大部分段落的第一句便是主题句。开门见山地提出问题，后面的扩展句围绕主题句加以说明、支持、补充和解释。
Learning English at college is different from learning English at the middle school. In the middle school, the students are more dependent and passive. But college students must solve most of the problems by themselves. They will have to consult the dictionaries and reference books by themselves and prepare their lessons.
位于段尾：主题句位于段尾便于总结全段的内容，给读者以深刻的印象，是写作中的一种演绎方法。
Similarly, in order to write successful answers to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly when a student writes a book report for English, or a critiques for politics studies, or a term paper for sociology, style and organization are often as important as content. Clearly,

the ability to write well organized, concise paragraphs and essays is essential to a student's success in almost all university courses.
位于段中：位于段中的主题句起承上启下的作用，这类主题句多起转折作用，一般由“but, however, yet, anyhow, nevertheless”等词连接，用于引起下文。
What we teach ourselves sometimes indeed in more useful than what we learn from others. Some great men had little or no schooling. But these great men probably studied harder by themselves than most boys do in school. The greatest minds do not necessarily of those who have never been able to distinguish themselves at school, have been very successful in life later. It has been said that Wellington and Napoleon were both dull boys at school, and so were Newton and Albert Einstein.
无主题句：有的段落中无主题句，段落的主题思想通过文章内容来提示，这种方法能促使读者对文章内容时行思考和分析，但考生一般不宜在考试中采用这种方法：
There came a breeze, then a gust of wind, The wind became stronger. It rattled the windows, turned up the fallen leaves, bent down the trees. Distant rumbling thunder was heard and came nearer and nearer. Large drops of rain began to fall. Flashes of lightening lit up the sky. Thunder roared overhead. Now the rain poured down,
写好主题句的方法：
1.主题句要概括一定内容，不要空泛，否则扩展句将难以说明和支持它，例如：
空泛：English language is very important.
概括：English language is very important in our daily life.
空泛：The Olympic Games are exciting.
概括：In the Olympic Games the football teams from many countries compete intensely.
2.尽量使用简单句或简洁明了的句子：
简洁：Collecting stamps is her hobby.
复杂: She likes collecting stamps which is her hobby.
简洁: I enjoyed watching Gone with the wind very much.
复杂：Gone with the wind was a good film which I enjoyed watching very much.
3.主题句应该做到句子完整和表达的主题思想完整：
不完整：How to write a composition.
完整：How to write a composition is not an easy thing to talk about.
不完整：If the weather was fine.
完整：If it was fine, we would have had a good time.
4.写好主题句中的关键词。
关键词是直接表达主题的词汇，它决定段落的内容和展开的方法，引导整个段落的发展，例如：
There are several ways to boil the water.
The task can be finished in three steps.
There is a new method to reduce the cost.
四、写好扩展句和段落
围绕主题句展开，支持、说明和阐述主题句的句子便是扩展句。扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，句子与句子之间逻辑清楚，上

下转承结合得当，简明扼要，重点突出。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句与结尾句之外，还包含了3－6个扩展句。所以，写好了扩展句便基本上完成一个自然段落。
做题时，一旦定下了主题和关键词，作者便按照自己的思路来组织段落中的句子，句子之间要具有连贯性，就必须由一系列的逻辑关系构成，例如：并列关系，因果关系，递进关系，转折关系，解释关系，概括关系，顺序关系，让步关系，对照比较关系，转换关系等等，这些逻辑关系可由一系列的过渡词（transitional words）来完成。过渡词在句子与句子之间、段落与段落之间起到承上启下的作用，使句子或段落之间的衔接自然、连贯，逻辑合理，结构严谨，故极为重要。
例如：
构成时间关系的过渡词有：first, in the first place, since then, thereafter, there fore, lately, later, meanwhile, at last等。
构成空间关系的过渡词有：before, behind, below, between, beyond, farther, in front of , near to, next to, over, under, up, close to等。
五、写好扩展句和段落必须注意的事项和方法
1.避免写出与主题不相关的句子。例如：
There are several ways to improve our English writing skills and keeping a diary in English is surely one of them. Compared with other forms of writing, it is shorter and takes less time. My mother advised me to write diary when I was very young.（本句去掉意思更为合理）It can help us cultivate the habit of thinking in English. If we can keep this practice, we will gradually learn how to express ourselves in English.
2.混合使用简单句、并列句、复合句和短语等。
如果段落中都是一种结构的句子，虽然都能支持主题句，但内容仍读起来单调。句式有变化，文章读起来才有活力，令人回味。
There are also many quite, private things that I enjoy doing (主从复合句)I would spend a whole day reading a book, and I sometime stay up late at night reading a good novel.(并列句)When I am tired of physical activities, I may find a good movies or a light TV program very entertaining.(主从复合句) In short, I like to do many different kinds of things, depending on the mood I am in and the kind of people I am in and the kind of people I am around.(简单句，分词短语作状语)
3．按时间顺序（time order）或空间顺序（space order）来完成段落。按照时间和空间的顺序来组织段落是记叙文常用的方法。有时两种方法单独使用，有时混合使用。例如：
（1）按时间顺序
We had a hard time getting Peter out of the well he had fallen into. First we fashioned a rope by linking our belts together. Then we lowered it to Peter, telling him to grasp the end. After he had hold of the belt-rope, we began to pu

ll him slowly, inch by inch, out of the well. During his ascent, no one dared speak a word. Finally we could grasp his arms, and with a shout of relief, we pulled him out onto the grassy band.
(2)按空间顺序
Down the middle of the valley runs a clear, fast stream in which one may fish. In the low land along the stream are the farmlands; beyond them are the pastures. Behind the tops of the first hills are the big mountains. At the very top in the pure, brown rock of EI Ermitano Mountain, which shows snow until the middle of summer. Flowers cover the pasturelands in season.
空间顺序法常用的过渡词有：
beyond, above, under, nearby, outside, in here, across, close to, on(to)the left(right), ahead of, in front of, above, across, across, from, adjacent to, against, around, at the bottom, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, close at hand, close to down, far, farther, in the center of, in the distance, in the middle of, nearby, near to, next to, on the opposite side, opposite to, on top of ,　over, under, up等。
4．定义法（definition）
当段落的主题阐述“是什么”（What is）时，便可用定义法。词典中的词条解释便是定义法最好的例子：
define→State precisely the meaning of sth;
dictionary→a book listing and explaining the words of a language;
example→fact, thing, etc. which illustrates or represents a general rule;
hope→feeling of expectation and desire.
定义法用一段话来解释说明某事物的性质和特征等，定义的对象可以是一个抽象的概念或具体的事物，包括性质、特征、结构、用途、行为、原理、来源等等。例如：
What is honesty? Honesty means speaking the truth and being fair and upright in act. Honesty is a good virtue. He who lies cheats is dishonest. Those who gain fortunes, not by hard labor, but by other means are dishonest.
定义法常用法表达方法有：
what is …, to be defined as, to refer to, the definition of …is, to be used to describe, in a very real sense, in a limited sense, this is, this means, be explained, state that, in other words. namely等。
5．因果法（cause and effect）
当段落的主题要解释“为什么”（Why）时，便可采用“因果法”。因果法根据事物的原因（cause）推导出来结果（effect），它以事实（fact）和证据（evidence）为根据，前后过程合乎逻辑和常理，因果关系可分以前因后果，前果后因，一因一果和多果多因多种式。考研作文中常用到一因多果和多因一果形式。例如：
（1） 一因多果：
It was the end of my exhausting first day as waitress in a busy New York restaurant.(因)
Cap had gone away, my apron was stained, my feet ached. (果)The loaded trays I carried felt heavier.(果)Weary and discouraged, I didn't seem able to d

o anything right,(果)As I made out a complicated check for a family with several children who had changed their ice-cream order a dozen times, I was ready to quit .(果)
一段第一句为主题句，其余的句子为扩展句，四个扩展句的内容是由主题句中“exhausting”一种原因所产生的多种果。
（2）一果多因：
Health is a condition of wisdom, and a sign of cheerfulness.(果)If a man is in poor health, he will have many troubles and suffer a great deal.(因)He has to spend much time and money to go to a hospital for examinations and treatment.(因)In addition, his relatives and friends have to take care of him,(因)In this sense, poor health brings trouble to others as well as to the patient himself.(因)As we know, happiness and success depend on achievements and progress.(因)Good health is one of the many factors that lead to achievement and success, and the basis of them is health.(因)
本段的第一句为主题句，提出作者的观点，即“健康是智慧的条件，快乐的标志”，后面的扩展句说明这种观点的原因，证明为什么这个结论是正确的。
because, since, as, seeing that, the reason why…because of, on account of due to, so, thus, hence, therefore, accordingly, consequently, so that, as a result of, in consequence of, result in, result from, lead to, so…as to, owing to, to have an effect on, for the reason, in this way等。
6．比较与对比法（comparison contrast）
当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同，（similarities）或相异（differences）之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。
“比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处：“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。比较和对比一般采用两种方法来组织：1）对两项或多项事的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，B1，A2，B2；A3，B3…。2）对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，A2，A3;B1,B2,B3; …。例如
（1） 比较
Paragraph and Essay
Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic sentence. Similarly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator-whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation-ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparble in stru

cture.
本段文章对段落和文章在结构上相似之处作了细致的比较，方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；…。
（2）对比：
There is an essential difference between a new story, as understood by a newspaperman or a wire-service writer, and the newsmagazine story, The chief purpose of the conventional news story is to tell what happened. It starts with the most important information and continues into increasingly inconsequential details, not only because the reader may not read beyond the first paragraph but because an editor working on galley proofs a few minutes before press time likes to be able to cut feely from the end of the story. A newsmagazine is very different. It is written to be read consecutively from beginning to end, and each of its stories is designed, following the critical theories of Edgar Allen Poe, to create one emotional effect. The news, what happened that week, may be told in the beginning, the middle, or the end ; for the purpose is not to throw information at the reader but to reduce him into reading the whole story, and into accepting the dramatic(and often political)point being made.
本段文章就传统新闻报道和新闻杂志报道的不同之处进行了鲜明的对比，采用A1，A2，A3；B1，B2，B3；…的方法。
Railways and Automobile Roads
Some people say that railways are more important than automobile roads. But in my opinion, automobile roads and railways complement each other. Railways do not touch small places , while automobile roads can be constructed to reach every place, even villages situated in remote corners of the country. Railways are constructed only for the trains, but roads will prove equally useful for bicycles, carriages and other kinds of vehicles. The cost of building automobile roads is also such lower than that of building railways.
本段文章对铁路的不用途作了实际的对比，以证明自己对“铁路比公路重要”的看法不同见解，采用方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；…。
比较和对比法常用的过渡词有：
like, likewise, unlike, similarly, in the same way, on the other hand, compare with, by comparison, in contrast to, on the contrary, but, so despite, yet, instead, while, whereas, however, nevertheless, although, even though, conversely, different from, equally important, in spite of. instead, in the same manner, still等。
7．举例或例证法（example and illustration）
当段落的主题为一理论性论点时，就需要举例或例证来加以支持，以说服读者。举例和例证使抽象的概念具体化，而所举的事例也应该具有充分的说服力，同时逻辑严密。例如：
In many countries cigarette smoking is restricted in many ways. For example. in Britain, cigarettes are not allowed to be advertised on TV or radio; the American government requires manufacturers to print the

warning that smoking is dangerous to health on every package of cigarettes; in our country a regulation is being drafted banning the sale of tobaccoproducts to people under eighteen. There is no doubt that the world-wide anti-smoking campaigns will make more and more people be aware of the danger of smoking and become conscious fighters for cleaner air.
本段在首句，即主题句中提出“在许多国家吸烟被以各种方式加以限制”的观点，接着“for example ”引出三个例证一“for instance”等加以引导，但也可在主题句之后直接列举，例如：
Wealth does always not go hand in hand with happiness. Wealth may encourage those weak-willed persons to be addicted to some harmful habits such as drug-taking or gambling, and bring about their own ruin, Also, a person may lose his reason and go astray if he is passionately devoted to seeking wealth. Therefore, one can never count on wealth to achieve happiness.
本段主题句提出“财富并不总幸福共存”的观点，接着直接举出两个例子来证明自己的论点，结尾得出结论。
举例或例法常用的过渡词有：
for example, for instance, for one thing, for another, to illustrate, one example is, to begin with, first, second, furthermore, besides, in addition, moreover, finally, in conclusion, in summary, also, a case in point, as an illustration, incidentally, namely, that is等。
8.分类法（classification）
按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落的方法先由主题句提出分类，再由扩展句一一加以陈述和说明。例如，球类运动一概念，按类别来分类就有篮球、足球、乒乓球、羽毛球、棒球等等，例如：
Examinations are of three kinds. One is the machine-scored“objective”type. In an objectivetest, the students answer questions by deciding on the best choice among a number of alternatives give. Another is the“completion”type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to a sentence. And the third type is essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition on a given topic. All these kinds of examinations are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.
分类法常用的过渡词用：
to divide…into, to classify…into, group…into, to fall into classes, there are…kinds(types, groups, classes, categories, sorts ) of, according to, in terms of, depending on, at the level of等。
9.综合法（combination of methods）
同时在段落发展中应用以上介绍的几种不同手段即为综合法。事实上，在多数情况下，段落写作都是各种不同方法的综合应用，很少单纯采用一种方法来展开段落或文章，常见的为两三种方法混合使用。例如：
Example 1
Increasin

g your vocabulary can help you in a number of ways .(顺序法)You will discover that knowing synonyms, for example.(举例法)will decrease the amount of repetition in your compositions and make them more enjoyable to read. And if a teacher enjoys reading your paper, he may even give you a better grade. Also, an increased vocabulary will make your own reading more enjoyable. You will find it is much easier to follow the ideas in your history textbook or the newspaper when you do not have to continually run to the dictionary to look up unknown word, you will become more eager to read and not as discouraged when you do come across an unknown word.(因果法)As a result, you will read faster and more intelligently, become more knowledgeable, and hence better informed about the world around you. Strange as it may seem, vocabulary study can make you a better person.
段落第一句为主题句，指出“增加词汇时可以使你在多方面受益”，接着按顺序列举“这些好处”，最后得结论，所以段落综合使用了顺序法举例法和因果法。
Example 2
Poetry is branch of literature(定义法)which explores ideas, emotions, and experiences in a distinctive form and style. Poetry, sometimes called“verse”depends greatly on the natural rhythms and sounds of language for its special effects. Poetry even more than prose,(比较法)depends on precise and suggestive wording. In other words, a poem says much in little space. Poetry differs from prose (比较法)in obvious ways, also. Most often (举例法)the first word of every line begins with a capital letter, even in the middle of a sentence. Poems sometimes contain rhythms, and often they have a particular rhythm, like music.(比较法)
段落第一句主题句对“poetry”作出了定义，接着用对比法将“prose”,“music”作了比较，同时用举例说明“poetry”与“prose”的最大区别。所以段落的发展采用了定义法、比较法和举例法三种方法。
Example 3
During the American War of Independence,(顺序法)women were involved in the active fighting in three way.(举例法)as members of a distinct branch of the Continental Amy, referred to as“Women of the Army”,women staffed field hospitals and acted as military support in such roles as water carriers. In an emergency, women water carriers, who had plenty to opportunity to observe the firing of cannons, In an emergency, women water carriers, who had plenty of opportunity to observe the firing of cannons, could replace a wounded comrade. The second(举例法)way that women were involved in active fighting was as regular troop members who wore men's uniforms and fought side by side with their male counterparts. Theoretically（因果法）women were not supposed to be recruited into the Continental Army, but if a woman was a good soldier, no one made an issue of sex at a time when the army was so short of soldiers that boys n

ot yet in their teens were also being recruited in violation of rules. Third.(举例法)women were occasional fighters affiliated with local militia companies or committees of safety formed to protect the local community.
段落第一句（主题句）指出“在美国独立战争期间，妇女以三种方式参与积极的战斗”，接着按顺序列举了这三种方式，在第二种方式中解释了“为什么妇女要被征募参加大陆军”，使用了因果法。所以本段使用了三种方法；顺序法、举例法和因果法。
Example1
Physical exercise is also important for our mind. Exercise is effective as a tranquilizer. Tests have show that a 15-minute walk can have a more tranquilizing effect than the most used tranquilizer on the market today. It has been demonstrated that the most used less from anxiety and are able to work harder. In a word, physical recreation can help toughen our competitive nature.
本段中结尾句主题句相呼应，给全段一个结论。
Example2
English is spoken by pilots and airport control operators on all the airways of the world. Over 70 percent of the world's mail is written in English. More than 60 percent of the world's radio programs are in English. Cleary English is an international language.
本段中结尾也是主题句，对全段作出结论。
Lions belong to the cat family. In many ways they are like the cats we see every day. They have sharp claws hidden under soft cushion. They make no noise when they walk. They have sharp teeth with which they tear their food to pieces, They like to sleep through the day and to hunt at night. A lion will lie for hours by a spring or river, waiting for the deer to come to drink in the same way that a cat watches over a hole of the mouse till mouse comes out.
本段以扩展句替结尾句。
常用的结尾句句型有：
In short…; In conclusion…;
To sum up…; Consequently…;
From the point of view, …; In a word…;
There fore…; Thus, …