土木工程 建筑 外文翻译 外文文献 高层建筑的消防安全设计
外文资料来源及题目（注：含作者、书名、杂志名或外文数据库名等，英文文章或段落标题，原文附后）
题目: Discussion on the fire safety design of a high-rise building
作者 : 马钱丽郭伟
摘自: Elsevier电子期刊全文库
关于一幢高层建筑的消防安全设计的研究
马钱利a 郭伟b
a滨海新区分公司消防队中国天津滨海新区中心路7号 300457
b天津消防和安全科学研究所中国天津南开区魏晋南路110号 30387
摘要：高层住宅建筑在消防安全设计上的几个问题：疏散楼梯和电梯不能从顶部运
行到地上，居民无法转移到建筑物外;消防电梯不能直接到达一楼和剪刀型楼梯与
消防电梯的合用大厅。基于这些问题, 提出消防安全目标并提供了解决方案。希望，
建议的解决方案可以为类似的高层建筑的消防安全设计提供参考。
关键词：高层住宅建筑；消防设计；消防电梯
1.引言
“11.15”上海灾难性的火灾引起了人们对高层住宅建筑消防安全的思考。这次灾难是由于节能项目建设引起，而不是因为高层设计本身。然而,如何提高消防安全的高层住宅建筑和维护的生命安全居民已成为最重要的问题，必须认真考虑在这类高层建筑上的消防安全设计。因此，分析了我国北方的一幢高层建筑的消防安全设计，以它为例子来为同类建筑的消防安全设计提供参考。
2.高层建筑的火灾风险因素
通常高层住宅建筑火灾风险包括以下:
2.1火和烟雾的快速扩散
因为高层建筑的“烟囱效应”，如果控制措施不够，火和烟会通过楼梯、电梯和管道在短时间内快速的蔓延到楼上。
2.2火灾扑救困难
类似于建筑的高度，不完善的消防设备和过大的离地距离，给灭火增加了难度。此外，中国目前的高层建筑大部分的电力器材都是可燃的，这大大增加了大火的垂直蔓延速度。这样，大火覆盖了建筑的外表面，为消防员的灭火增加了难度。
2.3居民逃生困难
一般来说，高层建筑居民要比低层建筑居民多，另外，高层建筑高度大使得疏散更加困难。此外，公民缺乏消防安全常识大大增加安全疏散时间，公民的消防安全意识需要改善。
2.4火灾持续时间长
高层建筑面积和荷载较大，有时它可能蔓延到邻近建筑，使得高层建筑火灾持续时间更长。
3.高层住宅建筑的消防安全设计
在中国北方，因为冬天寒冷，大多数高层住宅建筑是成组的，居民通常选择拥有足够阳光的房间。在这里，我把一个联合高层建筑的消防安全设计作为例子。建筑高99.8米，布置新颖。见图1细节。
（a）（b）
图一，高层住宅建筑素描图
根据高层民用建筑设计防火规范“GB50045-95（2005）【1】”,这类住宅应
被设计成防火建筑，然而在建筑消防设计中出现了以下问题。
3.1疏散楼梯和电梯不能从顶部运行到地上，居民无法转移到建筑物外
由图一知，这个建筑形式很新颖。上部有两个悬空的结构，悬空结构里有两个单元，因此，每个单元里会有一部电梯无法直接运行到一楼。见图2
图二楼梯和消防电梯的草图
3.2消防电梯不能直接到一楼
就像在两个悬空结构中的楼梯和消防电梯，在顶层（转换层）的下方，消防电梯就停止了，然后在相邻单元继续运行。见图2
图3 消防楼梯和楼梯的共享间
4.消防安全目标
通常，消防安全目标可能包括生命和财产安全，遗产和环境保护，然而，消防安全目标会随建筑的使用功能，结构形式和高度有所不同。因此，基于使用功能，结构布局，以及高层住宅建筑中特有的火灾隐患等所存在的问题，列出消防安全目标：
（1）所有人员必须在规定时间撤离到户外
（2）防火落实到户
（3）建筑有足够的条件利于消防员灭火
（4）防火设计可以减少火灾隐患并减少财产损失
5.解决方案
为了实现以上的消防目标，提出下面的建议
5.1转换层和转换通道
（1）转换层应开放不少于5%房间面积的机械排烟或自然排烟系统以便确保住户安全通过。转换层的防火门应设计成B类防火门【3】
（2）在转换层，楼梯和消防电梯应该设计成双向【4-5】
(3)转换层的消防电梯标志和疏散标志应沿应急通道安装，应急灯也应提供。疏散通道应呈一条直线。
（4）相邻的电梯，楼梯，走廊和公寓应使用单独的疏散通道，防火墙至少3.0H 耐火等级。
（5）钢结构桁架的转换层应防火，确保钢结构安全。
5.2 楼梯和大厅
（1）防火墙将消防电梯大厅与剪刀楼梯分开，并根据相关国家标准【6-7】，见图4细节。如果防火墙开洞，洞口应设置一个防火门。不允许有开门的楼梯，为的是防止烟雾延到楼梯。
（2）楼梯应提供自然采光和排烟措施
（3）如果前厅不能提供自然采光和排烟，那么应设置机械防烟系统。
（4）前厅和疏散通道禁止有可燃物，这些约束能保证居民安全通过大厅和应急通道。
（5）家庭门应设置为防火门
（6）如果大厅不能提供自然采光和自然排烟，应安装应急照明和疏散指示标志，特别是应急通道。
5.3 楼梯与大厅的共用间和消防电梯
(1)应采取措施保证在建筑的上部和下部的电梯可以自动下降到最低层（转换层消防电梯的上部和一楼较低的部分）以防火灾
（2）每一层楼电梯井内的通风管道应能防火，保护门应为C类防火门
（3）灭火器应安装在大堂和每个公寓楼，可以用来扑灭小火。应采取措施保证在建筑的上部和下部的电梯可以自动下降到最低层（转换层消防电梯的上部和一楼较低的部分）以防火灾
6.可行性分析
通过可行性分析和有效性分析解决一下三方面问题：确保居民安全疏散，控制早期火灾和控制烟雾蔓延。
（1）确保居民安全疏散和保证消防灭火顺利进行
在火灾中，烟雾、高温和有毒气体给人体带来了极大的危险，因此，设计时应考虑如何防止初期火源和烟雾的蔓延。在这种情况下，足够的防火间距是必要的。例如，安装防火门能有效的防止火灾和烟雾从大堂蔓延到家庭。
转换层应设计层双向的应急通道，转换层作为第二个出口，提供了一条应急疏散
线路，因此，一个楼梯着火了，上层居民可以通过其他楼梯撤离，通过这种方式，可以确保居民的安全疏散和灭火的顺利进行。
（2）早期火灾控制
这个民用住宅建筑人口有限，主要的火灾荷载是家具所产生的荷载。除了室内消火栓系统，灭火器对扑灭早期家具所引起的火灾是非常有效的。因此建议在大厅和公寓内安装灭火器。
（3）烟雾和有毒气体的控制
如果发生火灾，通过防烟楼梯是住户疏散到安全地方的唯一的路径，而消防电梯有助于消防工具和设备的运输。因此，采取合理有效的措施防止烟雾和热气扩散到楼梯和电梯，确保居民安全疏散和火灾扑灭的顺利进行。如果住户家里着火了，烟雾肯定会扩散出来。增压设备可以防止烟雾过道和大堂。根据以上分析，如果建筑按照上述提供的建议进行高层建筑的消防安全设计可以确保人员的安全疏散。
7．结论
对这个建筑的消防安全设计案例进行了分析。根据设计要求和使用功能提出消防安全目标，基于这些提供可行的消防系统设计的要求和方法，进行可行性的分析和探讨。希望改进后的消防设计方法可以为类似的建筑提供有价值的参考。
参考文献
[1] The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China, 2005, Code for Fire Protection Design of Tall Buildings GB 50045-95 (2005
Edition). China Planning Press, Beijing.
[2] Zhang Xiaoling, Zheng Yanqiu, 2007. Discussion on the design of shared lobby of buildings, Asia Fire Protection 1, p. 58.
[3] The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China, 2006, Code for design of building fire protection and prevention GB 50015-2006.
China Planning Press, Beijing
[4] Tian Yumin, 2005. Function of fire elevator in evacuation and fire fighting, Fire Technique and Products Information 9, p. 34.
[5] Wang Bing. Discussion on Problems of Fire Evacuation of Modular High-rise Housing [J]. Fire Science and Technology. 2009, 4: 182-183.
[6] Naohiro Takeichi, Yoshiyuki Yoshida, Tomonori Sano, etc, 2007. Characteristics of Merging Occupants in a Staircase, Fire Science and Technology 4,
p.363
[7] Dai Wenyan, Qin Jian, Zhou Yuanyuan, 2012. Discussion on Setting of Residual Pressure Valve in Pressurization Design, Construction Science and
Discussion on the fire safety design of a
high-rise building
MA Qianli a, GUO Wei b,*
a Eco-city Branch of Binhai New Area Fire Brigade, NO. 7, Zhongxin Road, Binhai New Area, Tianjin 300457, China
b Fire Code Research Division of Tianjin Fire Research Institute of MPS, NO. 110, Weijin Road (South),
Nankai District Tianjin 300381, China
Abstract
There are several problems in the fire safety design of a high-rise residential building: the
staircase for evacuation can’t run from the topto the ground and the occupants can’t directly
evacuate to the outside of the building; fire lift can’t directly reach the first floor and
thescissor-shaped staircase shares its lobby with the fire lift. Based on these problems, fire
safety objectives have been defined and suggestedsolutions have been provided. Hopefully,
the suggested solutions can provide references for the fire safety design of similar
high-risebuildings.
Keywords: high-rise residential building; fire protection design; fire lift
1. Introduction
“11.15” Shanghai disastrous fire aroused profound consideration of the fire safety of high-rise residential buildings inChina. This disaster was caused by the energy-saving project of the building, not because of the design of the high-riseuilding itself, however, how to improve the fire safety of high-rise residential buildings and to safeguard the life safety ofthe residents has become the most important issue that must be considered seriously during the fire safety design of this kindof building. Therefore, analysis of the problems in the fire safety design of a high-rise building in the north part of China hasbeen done as an example to provide references for the fire safety design of the same kind of buildings in the other areas ofChina.
2. Fire risks of the high-rise residential building
Fire risks of the high-rise residential building usually include the followings. (1) Rapid fire and smoke spread.
Because of the “chimney effect” of the high-rise building, fire and smoke can spread to the upper floors very rapidly through staircases, elevator shafts and ducts in a very short time if the fire and smoke control measures are not adequate.
(2) Difficult fire fighting and rescue.
Factors like the height of the building, the inadequate fire fighting equipment and fire fighting at an elevated heightcertainly increase the difficulties of the fire fighting in a high-rise building. Moreover, the current cladding systems of mosthigh-rise buildings in China are combustible, which contribute a lot to the vertical spread of fire. In this case, fire covers thebuilding from outside and it increases the difficulties for fire fighters to do fire fighting and rescue.\
(3) Difficult safe evacuation of the occupants
Generally speaking, there will be more occupants in a high-rise residential building than those of a low building. In addition, the vertical travel distance for a high-rise building is quite long, which makes the evacuation more difficult. Furthermore, the fire safety sense of the public in China needs to be improved. The lack of common sense of fire safety and ability of escaping safely from the building in case of fire increases the safe evacuation time.
(4) Fire usually lasts for a quite long time
Fire lasts longer in a high-rise building because high-rise buildings are usually large in area and heavy in fire load. Therefore, high-rise building fire often lasts longer and sometimes it may spread to the adjacent buildings.
3. Problems in fire safety design of a high-rise residential building
In the north part of China, most high-rise buildings for residential occupancy are unitized because it is quite cold in winter and the residents often choose rooms with
enough sunshine. Here, I would like to take a unitized high-rise residential building as an example to show the problems in the fire safety design of this building. The building is 99.8m in height with a quite novel configuration. See Fig.1 for the details.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Design sketch of a high-rise residential building.
According to current national standard “Code for Fire Protection Design of Tall Bui ldings” GB 50045-95(2005)[1], this residential building should be designed as Class I fire resistance. However, during the fire protection design of the building, the following problems have been found.
3.1. Staircase for evacuation can’t run from the top to the ground and the occupants can not directly evacuate to the outside of the building
From Fig.1, we can see that the building is quite novel in shape. The upper two parts of the building suspend in midair and each suspended part has two units. Therefore, there will be one staircase in each suspendedpart failing to run directly to the first floor. See Fig. 2 for the details.
Fig. 2. Sketch map of staircases and fire lifts.
3.2. Fire lift can’t directly reach the first floor
Just like the staircase, the fire lifts of those two suspended parts can’t directly reach the first floor. At the top floor (transfer floor) of the lower part, the fire lifts just stop and then continue in the adjacent units. See Fig.2 for the details.
3.3. Scissor-shaped staircase shares its lobby with the fire lift
In the trial design, the staircases have been designed in scissor shapes. The scissor-shaped staircase shares its lobby with the fire lift. This kind of lobby is usually called “shared lobby”[2] (two lobbies of the scissor-shaped staircase and one lobby of the fire lift) in China. See Fig.3 for the details.
Fig. 3. Shared lobby of the staircase and fire lift.
4. Fire safety objectives
Generally, the fire safety objectives may include life safety, protection of property and structure, continuity of business operation, heritage and environmental protection. However, the fire safety objectives of a building may vary with the occupancy, structure and height of the building. Therefore, based on the occupancy, layouts as well as the problems in fire safety design of this high-rise residential building and its unique fire hazards, the following fire safety objectives have been defined:
(1) All the occupants shall evacuate to the outdoor safely within the required time;
(2) Fire shall be controlled within one family;
(3) The conditions inside the building shall be favorable enough for fire fighters to do fire fighting and rescue safely;
(4) The fire prevention design can reduce fire hazards effectively and control the property loss within acceptable range.
5. Suggested solutions
In order to fulfill the above fire safety objectives, the following solutions have been suggested.
5.1. Transfer floor and transfer passageway
(1) Transfer floor and transfer passageway should be designed and there should be no combustibles inside the transfer lobby on the transfer floor. Independent mechanical smoke exhaust system or natural smoke exhaust system with opening area not less than 5% of the room area should be installed to secure the safety of the occupants during evacuation through the transfer floor. Rooms connecting to the transfer lobby should be protected by class B fire door[3].
(2) On the transfer floor, the staircase and fire lift should be designed for two way evacuation[4-5].
(3) Signs to indicate the location of the fire lift on the transfer floor and continuous
evacuation signs should be installed along the transfer passageway. Emergency light should also be provided. The transfer passageway should be in a straight line.
(4) Fire wall with at least 3.0 h fire resistance rating should be used to separate the transfer passageway from the adjacent elevator shafts, staircases, corridors and apartments. If there are openings in the fire wall, the openings should be protected with Class A fire door.
(5) The steel truss of the transfer floor should be fire protected to ensure the safety of the steel structure.
5.2. Staircase and lobby
(1) To separate the lobby of the fire lift from that of the scissor staircase by fire wall, and provide smoke prevention measures according to the related national
standards[6-7], see Fig.4 for details. If there are openings in the fire wall, the openings should be protected by Class A fire door. No room should be permitted to have doors open to the staircase so as to prevent smoke from spreading to the staircase.
(2) Natural lighting and smoke exhaust facilities should be provided in the staircase;
(3) If the lobby can’t be provided with natural lighting and smoke exhaust, mechanical smoke prevention system should be installed and liability and effectiveness should be ensured.
(4) Lobby and transfer passageway should be finished with non-combustibles, no combustibles and other articles that may not guarantee the safe evacuation of the occupants should be permitted in the lobby and the transfer passageway;
(5 Family doors should be protected by Class A fire door;
(6) If the lobby can’t be provided with natural lighting and natural smoke exhaust, emergency lighting and evacuation indicating signs should be installed, especially in the transfer passageway.
Fig. 4. Shared lobby of the staircase and fire lift.
5.3. Other solutions
(1) Linkage measures should be taken to ensure that the fire lifts of upper and lower parts of the building canautomatically descend to the lowest floor (the transfer floor for the fire lifts of the upper parts and the first floor for the lower parts) in case of fire;
(2) The ducts inside the fire lift shafts should be fire stopped at each floor. Maintenance doors should be protected by Class C fire door.
(3) Fire extinguishers should be installed in the lobby and each apartment, which can be used to put out early stage fires.
Linkage measures should be taken to ensure that the fire lifts of upper and lower parts of the building can automatically descend to the lowest floor (the transfer floor for the fire lifts of the upper parts and the first floor for the lower parts) in case of fire
6. Feasibility analysis
Feasibility and effectiveness of the above solutions has been analyzed through the following 3 aspects: to secure the safe evacuation of occupants, to control the early stage fire and to control smoke from spreading.
(1) To secure the safe evacuation of occupants and fire fighting practice.
In case of fire, smoke with high temperature and toxicity brings great danger to people’s life. Therefore, the fire protection design of buildings shall consider how to prevent fire and smoke from spreading out of the fire origin. In this case, reliable fire separation shall be needed. For example, installation of fire door for each family can effectively prevent fire and smoke from spreading to the lobby.
Two way evacuation transfer passageway shall be designed on the transfer floor. The transfer floor can’t be regarded asthe second exit, however, it does provide an alternative evacuation route, so that if there is something wrong with one staircase, occupants on the upper floors can evacuate through the other staircase. In this way, evacuation of the occupants and fire fighting practice can be guaranteed.
(2) Early stage fire control.
This is a residential building and the area for each family is quite limited. The main fire load of the family is furniture. Except indoor fire hydrant system, fire extinguishers are also helpful and effective in putting out early stage furniture fires. Therefore, it is suggested that fire extinguishers shall be installed both in the lobby and the apartments.
(3) Smoke control.
In case of fire, smoke protected staircase is the only way for occupants to evacuate to a safe location while fire lift is very helpful in transporting fire fighting tools and equipment. Therefore, reasonable and effective smoke control measures shall be taken to prevent smoke and heat from spreading to staircases and elevator shafts so as to ensure the safe evacuation of the people and the fine conditions for fire fighting and rescue.
When the residents escape from the fire apartment, smoke will certainly flow out. The pressurization facilities in the lobby can help to prevent smoke from spreading to the lobby.
According to the above analysis, it can be proved that the fire safety design of this high-rise building is safe enough for
occupant evacuation and fire fighting if it is designed according to the above suggested solutions.
7. Conclusions
The problems in fire safety design of a high-rise residential building have been analyzed. The fire safety objectives have been defined according to the design features and occupancy of the building. Based on these, feasible fire safety design countermeasures have been suggested and their feasibility has been analyzed and discussed. Hopefully, the improved design methods of the building can provide valuable reference for the fire safety design of the similar buildings
References
[1] The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China, 2005, Code for Fire Protection Design of Tall Buildings GB 50045-95 (2005
Edition). China Planning Press, Beijing.
[2] Zhang Xiaoling, Zheng Yanqiu, 2007. Discussion on the design of shared lobby of buildings, Asia Fire Protection 1, p. 58.
[3] The Ministry of Public Security of the People’s Republic of China, 2006, Code for design of building fire protection and prevention GB 50015-2006.
China Planning Press, Beijing
[4] Tian Yumin, 2005. Function of fire elevator in evacuation and fire fighting, Fire Technique and Products Information 9, p. 34.
[5] Wang Bing. Discussion on Problems of Fire Evacuation of Modular High-rise Housing [J]. Fire Science and Technology. 2009, 4: 182-183.
[6] Naohiro Takeichi, Yoshiyuki Yoshida, Tomonori Sano, etc, 2007. Characteristics of Merging Occupants in a Staircase, Fire Science and Technology 4,
p.363
[7] Dai Wenyan, Qin Jian, Zhou Yuanyuan, 2012. Discussion on Setting of Residual Pressure Valve in Pressurization Design, Construction Science and
Technology 7, p 77.
土木工程类专业英文文献及翻译
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,
建筑结构设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Create and comprehensive technology in the structure global design of the building The 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together. The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity and
土木工程外文翻译
转型衰退时期的土木工程研究 Sergios Lambropoulosa[1], John-Paris Pantouvakisb, Marina Marinellic 摘要 最近的全球经济和金融危机导致许多国家的经济陷入衰退，特别是在欧盟的周边。这些国家目前面临的民用建筑基础设施的公共投资和私人投资显著收缩，导致在民事特别是在民用建筑方向的失业。因此，在所有国家在经济衰退的专业发展对于土木工程应届毕业生来说是努力和资历的不相称的研究，因为他们很少有机会在实践中积累经验和知识，这些逐渐成为过时的经验和知识。在这种情况下，对于技术性大学在国家经济衰退的计划和实施的土木工程研究大纲的一个实质性的改革势在必行。目的是使毕业生拓宽他们的专业活动的范围，提高他们的就业能力。 在本文中，提出了土木工程研究课程的不断扩大，特别是在发展的光毕业生的潜在的项目，计划和投资组合管理。在这个方向上，一个全面的文献回顾，包括ASCE体为第二十一世纪，IPMA的能力的基础知识，建议在其他：显著增加所提供的模块和项目管理在战略管理中添加新的模块，领导行为，配送管理，组织和环境等；提供足够的专业训练五年的大学的研究；并由专业机构促进应届大学生认证。建议通过改革教学大纲为土木工程研究目前由国家技术提供了例证雅典大学。 1引言 土木工程研究（CES）蓬勃发展，是在第二次世界大战后。土木工程师的出现最初是由重建被摧毁的巨大需求所致，目的是更多和更好的社会追求。但是很快，这种演变一个长期的趋势，因为政府为了努力实现经济发展，采取了全世界的凯恩斯主义的理论，即公共基础设施投资作为动力。首先积极的结果导致公民为了更好的生活条件（住房，旅游等）和增加私人投资基础设施而创造机会。这些现象再国家的发展中尤为为明显。虽然前景并不明朗（例如，世界石油危机在70年代），在80年代领先的国家采用新自由主义经济的方法（如里根经济政策），这是最近的金融危机及金融危机造成的后果（即收缩的基础设施投资，在技术部门的高失业率），消除发展前途无限的误区。 技术教育的大学所认可的大量研究土木工程部。旧学校拓展专业并且新的学校建成，并招收许多学生。由于高的职业声望，薪酬，吸引高质量的学校的学生。在工程量的增加和科学技术的发展，导致到极强的专业性，无论是在研究还是工作当中。结构工程师，液压工程师，交通工程师等，都属于土木工程。试图在不同的国家采用专业性的权利，不同的解决方案，，从一个统一的大学学历和广泛的专业化的一般职业许可证。这个问题在许多其他行业成为关键。国际专业协会的专家和机构所确定的国家性检查机构，经过考试后，他们证明不仅是行业的新来者，而且专家通过时间来确定进展情况。尽管在很多情况下，这些证书虽然没有国家接受，他们赞赏和公认的世界。 在试图改革大学研究（不仅在土木工程）更接近市场需求的过程中，欧盟确定了1999博洛尼亚宣言，它引入了一个二能级系统。第一级度（例如，一个三年的学士）是进入
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
土木工程岩土类毕业设计外文翻译
姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月
开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的
土木工程外文文献翻译
专业资料 学院： 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Structural Systems to resist (用外文写) Lateral loads 附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 抗侧向荷载的结构体系 常用的结构体系 若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。 这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。 如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类： 1.抗弯矩框架。 2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。 3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。 4.筒中框架。 5.筒中筒结构。 6.核心交互结构。 7. 框格体系或束筒体系。 特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。 将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。这并
不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。 虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中。 抗弯矩框架 抗弯矩框架也许是低，中高度的建筑中常用的体系，它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点。这种框架用作独立的体系，或者和其他体系结合起来使用，以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力。对于较高的高层建筑，可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系，这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度。 我们可以利用STRESS，STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析。所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地，由于柱梁节点固有柔性，并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点，所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的。当然，在设计的后期阶段，实际地评价结点的变形很有必要。 支撑框架 支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强，在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用。这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色，它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑，并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中。
土木工程外文翻译.doc
项目成本控制 一、引言 项目是企业形象的窗口和效益的源泉。随着市场竞争日趋激烈，工程质量、文明施工要求不断提高，材料价格波动起伏，以及其他种种不确定因素的影响，使得项目运作处于较为严峻的环境之中。由此可见项目的成本控制是贯穿在工程建设自招投标阶段直到竣工验收的全过程，它是企业全面成本管理的重要环节，必须在组织和控制措施上给于高度的重视，以期达到提高企业经济效益的目的。 二、概述 工程施工项目成本控制，指在项目成本在成本发生和形成过程中，对生产经营所消耗的人力资源、物资资源和费用开支，进行指导、监督、调节和限制，及时预防、发现和纠正偏差从而把各项费用控制在计划成本的预定目标之内，以达到保证企业生产经营效益的目的。 三、施工企业成本控制原则 施工企业的成本控制是以施工项目成本控制为中心，施工项目成本控制原则是企业成本管理的基础和核心，施工企业项目经理部在对项目施工过程进行成本控制时，必须遵循以下基本原则。 3.1 成本最低化原则。施工项目成本控制的根本目的，在于通过成本管理的各种手段，促进不断降低施工项目成本，以达到可能实现最低的目标成本的要求。在实行成本最低化原则时，应注意降低成本的可能性和合理的成本最低化。一方面挖掘各种降低成本的能力，使可能性变为现实；另一方面要从实际出发，制定通过主观努力可能达到合理的最低成本水平。 3.2 全面成本控制原则。全面成本管理是全企业、全员和全过程的管理，亦称“三全”管理。项目成本的全员控制有一个系统的实质性内容，包括各部门、各单位的责任网络和班组经济核算等等，应防止成本控制人人有责，人人不管。项目成本的全过程控制要求成本控制工作要随着项目施工进展的各个阶段连续 进行，既不能疏漏，又不能时紧时松，应使施工项目成本自始至终置于有效的控制之下。 3.3 动态控制原则。施工项目是一次性的，成本控制应强调项目的中间控制，即动态控制。因为施工准备阶段的成本控制只是根据施工组织设计的具体内容确
土木工程专业外文文献及翻译
（ 二 〇 一 二 年 六 月 外文文献及翻译 题 目： About Buiding on the Structure Design 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程(建筑工程方向) 班 级：土木08-4班 指导教师：
英文原文： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing Abstract The crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure. Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processing Foreword Concrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the
框架结构设计外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 系：机械工程系 专业：土木工程 姓名： 学号： 外文出处：Design of prestressed (用外文写) concrete structures 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 8-2简支梁布局 一个简单的预应力混凝土梁由两个危险截面控制：最大弯矩截面和端截面。这两部分设计好之后，中间截面一定要单独检查，必要时其他部位也要单独调查。最大弯矩截面在以下两种荷载阶段为控制情况，即传递时梁受最小弯矩M G的初始阶段和最大设计弯矩M T时的工作荷载阶段。而端截面则由抗剪强度、支承垫板、锚头间距和千斤顶净空所需要的面积来决定。所有的中间截面是由一个或多个上述要求，根它们与上述两种危险截面的距离来控制。对于后张构件的一种常见的布置方式是在最大弯矩截面采用诸如I形或T形的截面，而在接近梁端处逐渐过渡到简单的矩形截面。这就是人们通常所说的后张构件的端块。对于用长线法生产的先张构件，为了便于生产，全部只用一种等截面，其截面形状则可以为I形、双T形或空心的。在第5 、 6 和7章节中已经阐明了个别截面的设计，下面论述简支梁钢索的总布置。 梁的布置可以用变化混凝土和钢筋的办法来调整。混凝土的截面在高度、宽度、形状和梁底面或者顶面的曲率方面都可以有变化。而钢筋只在面积方面有所变化，不过在相对于混凝土重心轴线的位置方面却多半可以有变化。通过调整这些变化因素，布置方案可能有许多组合，以适应不同的荷载情况。这一点是与钢筋混凝土梁是完全不同的，在钢筋混凝土梁的通常布置中，不是一个统一的矩形截面便是一个统一的T形，而钢筋的位置总是布置得尽量靠底面纤维。 首先考虑先张梁，如图 8-7，这里最好采用直线钢索，因为它们在两个台座之间加力比较容易。我们先从图（a）的等截面直梁的直线钢索开始讨论。这样的布置都很简单，但这样一来，就不是很经济的设计了，因为跨中和梁端的要求会产生冲突。通常发生在跨度中央的最大弯矩截面中的钢索，最好尽量放低，以便尽可能提供最大力臂而提供最大的内部抵制力矩。当跨度中央的梁自重弯矩M G相当大时，就可以把c.g.s布置在截面核心范围以下很远的地方，而不致在传递时在顶部纤维中引起拉应力。然而对于梁端截面却有一套完全不同的要求。由于在梁端没有外力矩，因为在最后的时刻，安排钢索要以c.g.s与 c.g.c在结束区段一致，如此同样地获得克服压力分配的方法。无论如何，如果张应力在最后不能承受，放置 c.g.s.
文献检索课程教学设计(全部)
《文献检索》课程教学设计 目录 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 (2) 项目一科技文献检索方法和图书馆的科学利用 (8) 项目二常见化学化工科技论文的写作 (11) 项目三美国化学文摘的使用 (14) 项目四专利文献的查询 (17) 项目五标准文献的查询 (20) 项目六计算机信息检索的应用 (23) 项目七信息检索策略综合应用训练 (26)
徐州工业职业技术学院教学设计（讲稿）
教学内容与设计 绪论：文献（信息）检索的意义及基础 自我介绍 提问一：你会检索吗？ 如果会，那么会用检索以下毕业专题的相关资料吗？ ?杜仲叶中绿原酸的提取分离 ?有机废水处理工艺设计 ?蚕丝蛋白制备工艺研究 ?铁矿石含铁量测定方法新工艺 ?基因工程干扰素生产工艺研究 提问的目的：突出检索技术直接是为毕业专题服务，这是一门技术。提问二：信息检索课是什么？ 学生如是说： 文献检索课程是井底之蛙的升降机，是雄鹰的翅膀，是横跨天堑的桥梁。 针对某一课题，通过电子检索查阅有关资料，才知道知识的浩瀚，才知道世界的宽广，才知道“山外青山，楼外楼”。 它是我在大学期间所学的最重要，最有用的课程之一，有了它，我们将会受益终生。教会我们一种方法，一种主动 了解外界，提高自己，放眼世界的方法。 检索不仅是我们学习的制胜法宝，更是一条贯穿我们生活的红线。正因为有了这门课的学习，现在大脑的检索意识 就比较强烈，越搜越快！前几天，问同学借自行车，他告 诉我车子大致地点，是永久牌，有车栏，略有一点蓝。到 了现场，脑海中一下就有了先找有栏的，再找蓝颜色的， 最后确定是不是永久的，很快就找到了。 我爱检索，就像爱自己的生命一样。 最后我想说，我们是幸运的！我们学到了一门真正有用的课，它对我的影响和帮助将是伴随我一身的。 提问三：借鉴与创新的关系？ 科学研究是“站在前人肩膀上”的事业，而创新又是科学研究的灵魂，即要求“前无古人”。 时间分配 2min 引导学生回答 8min 10min 通过往届学生对信息检索课的评价能够激起学生学习这门课的兴趣，也可以突出这门课对个人的作用。 10min 通过提问让学生
土木工程毕业设计外文翻译最终中英文
7 Rigid-Frame Structures A rigid-frame high-rise structure typically comprises parallel or orthogonally arranged bents consisting of columns and girders with moment resistant joints. Resistance to horizontal loading is provided by the bending resistance of the columns, girders, and joints. The continuity of the frame also contributes to resisting gravity loading, by reducing the moments in the girders. The advantages of a rigid frame are the simplicity and convenience of its rectangular form.Its unobstructed arrangement, clear of bracing members and structural walls, allows freedom internally for the layout and externally for the fenestration. Rig id frames are considered economical for buildings of up to' about 25 stories, above which their drift resistance is costly to control. If, however, a rigid frame is combined with shear walls or cores, the resulting structure is very much stiffer so that its height potential may extend up to 50 stories or more. A flat plate structure is very similar to a rigid frame, but with slabs replacing the girders As with a rigid frame, horizontal and vertical loadings are resisted in a flat plate structure by the flexural continuity between the vertical and horizontal components. As highly redundant structures, rigid frames are designed initially on the basis of approximate analyses, after which more rigorous analyses and checks can be made. The procedure may typically inc lude the following stages: 1. Estimation of gravity load forces in girders and columns by approximate method. 2. Preliminary estimate of member sizes based on gravity load forces with arbitrary increase in sizes to allow for horizontal loading. 3. Approximate allocation of horizontal loading to bents and preliminary analysis of member forces in bents. 4. Check on drift and adjustment of member sizes if necessary. 5. Check on strength of members for worst combination of gravity and horizontal loading, and adjustment of member sizes if necessary. 6. Computer analysis of total structure for more accurate check on member strengths and drift, with further adjustment of sizes where required. This stage may include the second-order P-Delta effects of gravity loading on the member forces and drift.. 7. Detailed design of members and connections.
外文文献—动画讲课教案
外文文献—动画
Animation Animation is the rapid display of a sequence of images of 2-D or 3-D artwork or model positions to create an illusion of movement. The effect is an optical illusion of motion due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, and can be created and demonstrated in several ways. The most common method of presenting animation is as a motion picture or video program, although there are other methods. Early examples An Egyptian burial chamber mural, approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. Five images sequence from a vase found in Iran There is no single person who can be considered the "creator" of film animation, as there were several people working on projects which could be considered animation at about the same time. Georges Méliès was a creator of special-effect films; he was generally one of the first people to use animation with his technique. He discovered a technique by accident which was to stop the camera rolling to change something in the scene, and then continue rolling the film. This idea was later known as stop-motion animation. Early examples of attempts to capture the phenomenon of motion drawing can be found in paleolithic cave paintings, where animals are depicted with multiple legs in superimposed positions, clearly attempting to convey the perception of motion. An Egyptian burial chamber mural , approximately 4000 years old, showing wrestlers in action. Even though this may appear similar to a series of animation drawings, there was no way of viewing the images in motion. It does, however, indicate the artist's intention of depicting motion. A 5,000 year old earthen bowl found in Iran.It has five images of a goat painted along the sides. This has been claimed to be an example of early animation. However, since no equipment existed to show the images in motion, such a series of images cannot be called animation in a true sense of the word. A Chinese zoetrope-type device had been invented in 180 AD. The phenakistoscope, praxinoscope, and the common flip book were early popular animation devices invented during the 19th century. These devices produced the appearance of movement from sequential drawings using technological means, but animation did not really develop much
土木工程外文翻译参考3篇
学校 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号： xxxxx 姓名： xxx 所在系别： xxxxx 专业班级： xxx 指导教师： xxxx 原文标题： Building construction concrete crack of prevention and processing 2012年月日 .
建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理1 摘要 混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。 关键词：混凝土裂缝预防处理 前言 混凝土是一种由砂石骨料、水泥、水及其他外加材料混合而形成的非均质脆性材料。由于混凝土施工和本身变形、约束等一系列问题，硬化成型的混凝土中存在着众多的微孔隙、气穴和微裂缝，正是由于这些初始缺陷的存在才使混凝土呈现出一些非均质的特性。微裂缝通常是一种无害裂缝，对混凝土的承重、防渗及其他一些使用功能不产生危害。但是在混凝土受到荷载、温差等作用之后，微裂缝就会不断的扩展和连通，最终形成我们肉眼可见的宏观裂缝，也就是混凝土工程中常说的裂缝。 混凝土建筑和构件通常都是带缝工作的，由于裂缝的存在和发展通常会使内部的钢筋等材料产生腐蚀，降低钢筋混凝土材料的承载能力、耐久性及抗渗能力，影响建筑物的外观、使用寿命，严重者将会威胁到人们的生命和财产安全。很多工程的失事都是由于裂缝的不稳定发展所致。近代科学研究和大量的混凝土工程实践证明，在混凝土工程中裂缝问题是不可避免的，在一定的范围内也是可以接受的，只是要采取有效的措施将其危害程度控制在一定的范围之内。钢筋混凝土规范也明确规定：有些结构在所处的不同条件下，允许存在一定宽度的裂缝。但在施工中应尽量采取有效措施控制裂缝产生，使结构尽可能不出现裂缝或尽量减少裂缝的数量和宽度，尤其要尽量避免有害裂缝的出现，从而确保工程质量。 混凝土裂缝产生的原因很多，有变形引起的裂缝：如温度变化、收缩、膨胀、不均匀沉陷等原因引起的裂缝；有外载作用引起的裂缝；有养护环境不当和化学作用引起的裂缝等等。在实际工程中要区别对待，根据实际情况解决问题。 混凝土工程中常见裂缝及预防: 1.干缩裂缝及预防 干缩裂缝多出现在混凝土养护结束后的一段时间或是混凝土浇筑完毕后的一周左右。水泥浆中水分的蒸发会产生干缩，且这种收缩是不可逆的。干缩裂缝的产生主要是由于混凝土内外水分蒸发程度不同而导致变形不同的结果：混凝土受外部条件的影响，表面水分损失过快，变形较大，内部湿度变化较小变形较小，较大的表面干缩变形受到混凝土内部约束，产生较大拉应力而产生裂缝。相对湿度越低，水泥浆体干缩越大，干缩裂缝越易产 1原文出处及作者：《加拿大土木工程学报》