专八语言学复习要点
英语专业八级语言学
一、语言和语言学
1、语言的区别性特征：
任意性指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性指语言由两层结构组成
创造性指语言可以被创造
移位性指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点
2、语言的功能（不是很重要）
信息功能
人际功能
施为功能
感情功能
寒暄功能
娱乐功能
元语言功能
3、语言学主要分支
语音学研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音
音位学研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列
形态学研究词的内部结构和构词规则
句法学研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则
语义学不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义
语用学在语境中研究意义
4、宏观语言学
心理语言学社会语言学人类语言学计算机语言学
5 语言学中的重要区别
规定式和描写式：规定式：说明事情应该是怎么样的
描写式：说明事情本来是怎么样的
共时研究和历时研究：共时：研究某个特定时期语言
历时：研究语言发展规律
语言和言语：语言：指语言系统的整体
言语：指具体实际运用的语言
语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(提出)
能力：用语言的人的语言知识储备
运用：真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用
二、语音学
1、语音学分支
发音语音学研究语言的产生
声学语言学研究语音的物理属性
听觉语音学研究语言怎样被感知
2 （国际音标）是由琼斯提出的
三、音位学
1、最小对立体
2、音位
3 音位变体
4 互补分布
5 自由变体
6 区别特征
7 超音段特征
音节重音语调声调
四形态学
1 词的构成
语素自由语素粘着语素
词根词缀词干屈折词汇和派生词汇
2 特有的词汇变化
新创词语混拼词缩写词
首字母缩写词逆构词汇例：—
类推构词例：
外来词
五句法学
1 范畴数性格时体
一致关系支配关系
2 结构主义学派
组合关系词和词组合在一起
聚合关系具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起
结构和成分 :句子不仅是线性结构还是层级结构 (句子或短语被称为结构体，而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分)
3 直接成分分析法
指把句子分成直接成分－短语，再把这些短语依次切分，得到下一集直接成分，这样层层切分，直到不能再分
4 向心结构和离心结构
向心：指一个结构中有中心词，例 ,中心为
离心：指结构中没有明显的中心词。例：
5 生成学派
深层结构指机构关系中的潜在层面
表层结构指结构形成的最后结果阶段
6 功能学派
主位与述位
主位：谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起，
述位：与说话者内容有关的内容
7 交际力简称
指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度
六、语义学
1 利奇的意义七分法 7
概念意义字面意义
内涵意义实际交往过程中所指的事物
社会意义
情感意义
反射意义由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义
搭配意义
主位意义通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义
2 指称论
指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论
3 语义三角奥格登和理查兹提出
或指语言要素（如词和语素），
能指指概念
所指指经验世界中的物体
涵义语言形式的意义
4 主要涵义关系
○同义关系
地域同义词
风格同义词
感情同义词意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬○反义关系
等级反义关系例
互补反义关系 ,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例
反向反义关系 a 2 .例 ;
○上下义关系意义包含关系。例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合补充：同音同形异义关系
一词多义
七、语用学
1 言语行为理论奥斯汀提出
认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作
○施为句和叙事句
施为句：实施某种行为。
叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a
言内行为：表述字面意思
言外行为：因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为
言后行为：话语在听者身上产生的效果
2 会话含义理论
格赖斯提出
○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则
○ 四个准则
数量、质量、关系、方式()准则
3 后格赖斯时期的发展
○关联理论： :交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为 (直接表明的)
○数量关系和关系原则
由霍恩提出
八现代语言学理论和流派
1 索绪尔瑞士语言学家，“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”
2 布拉格学派
贡献:共时语言学研究，从“功能”角度看待语言，强调语言的系统性，把语言看做一种功能
突出贡献：语音学说，及其划分语音学和音位学
突出：特鲁别茨柯依：提出语音学属于言语，音位学属于语言，提出音位概念
4 伦敦学派 :系统语言学和功能语言学
创始人：弗斯.人物：弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性
韩礼德和系统功能语法：由系统语法和功能语法构成。把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象
5 美国结构主义
共时语言学分支，由博厄斯提出.
○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说
语言相对论-语言决定论
○布隆菲尔德《语言论》－20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。描述语言学的代表人物
6 转换生成语法–
乔姆斯基提出.
认为语言是某种天赋，语言习得机制
专八2003-人文知识真题及答案精编版
2003年英语专八人文知识真题 31. is not a nationally observed holiday of America. [A] Christmas [B] Easter Sunday [C] Thanksgiving Day [D] Independence Day 32. The university of Dublin was not founded until . [A] the 19th century [B] the 18th century [C] the 17th century [D] the 16th century 33. The introduced old-age pensions in New Zealand in 1898. [A] Labor Party [B] Democratic Party [C] Liberal Party [D] Conservative Party 34. Irish culture experienced a golden age from to . [A] the eighth century, the eleventh century [B] the seventh century, the ninth century [C] the sixth century, the eighth century [D] the ?fth century, the seventh century 35. Which of the following writings is not the work by Charles Dickens? [A] A Tale of Two Cities [B] Hard Times [C] Oliver Twist [D] Sons and Lovers 36. is a dramatist who holds the central position in American drama the modernistic period. [A] Sinclair Lewis [B] Eugene O'Neill [C] Arthur Miller [D] Tennessee Williams 37. is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age. [A] Ernest Hemingway [B] F. Scott Fitzgerald [C] William Faulkner [D] Ezra Pound 38. is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain categories. [A] Concord [B] Immediate constituent [C] Syntagmatic relations [D] Government 39. studies the sound systems in a certain language. [A] Phonetics [B] Phonology [C] Semantics [D] Pragmatics 40. A linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers is called . [A] situational dialect [B] slang [C] linguistic taboo [D] bilingualism 2004年英语专八人文知识真题 31. The following are products imported by Australia from China EXCEPT . [A] food [B] textiles [C] steel products [D] electronics 32. Scots regard as the most important festival in a year. [A] Near Year's Day [B] Christmas Day [C] New Year's Eve [D] Easter 33. The republican movement has been gathering momentum in Australia since became Prime Minister in 1992. [A] John Howard [B] Bob Hawke [C] Malcolm Fraser [D] Paul Keating 34. was known for his famous speech "I have a dream". [A] John F. Kennedy [B] Martin Luther King, Jr [C] Abraham Lincoln [D] Thomas Jefferson 35. Of all the 18th century novelists, ______ was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a "comic epic in prose", and the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. [A] Daniel Defoe [B] Samuel Johnson [C] Oliver Goldsmith [D] Henry Feilding 36. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his .
专八翻译及人文知识语言学
TEM-8翻译必备，英语专业的顶起来哦~作者：邱妍 （1）把握大局：grasp the overall situation (2) 摆谱儿：put on airs;keep up appearances(3)白手起家:start from scratc h (4)拜年：pay New Year call (5)班门弄斧：teach one's grand ma to suck eggs (5)保质期：guarantee period(6)报销：apply for reimbursement(7)爆冷门：produce an unexpected answer(8)曝光：make public(9)奔小康：strive for a relatively comforta ble life(10)闭门羹：given cold-shoulder（11）比上不足，比下有余：fall short of the best,but be better than the best(12)逼上梁山：be driven to drastic alternatives(13)变相涨价：dis guised inflation(14)边远贫困地区：outlying poverty-stricken areas(15)边缘知识人：Marginal intellectuals(16)表面文章：Lip service;surface formality(17) 博导：Ph.D supervisor(18)补 发拖欠的养脑筋：Clear up pension payments in arrears(19)不眠之夜：white night(20)菜鸟：green hand(21)产品科技含量techn oligical element of a product(22)长江三角洲：Yangtze River de lta(23)长江中下游：the middle and lower reaches of Changjian g River(24)超前消费:pre-mature consumption(25)城镇居民最低 生活保障：a minimum standard of living for residents(26)城镇职工医疗保险制度：the system of medical insurance for urban w orkers(27)重复建设：buiding redundant project;duplication of similar projects(28)充值卡：rechargeable card(29)春运：pas senger transport around the Chinese lunar new year(30)打破僵局：break the deadlock/stalemate(31)电脑盲：computer illiter ate(32)点球：penalty kick(33)电视会议：video conference(34)电视直销：TV home shopping(35)定向培训：training for specifi c posts(36)动感电影：multidimensional movie(37)豆腐渣工程：jerry-built projects(38)对...毫无顾忌：make no bones abou t(39)夺冠：take the crown(40)政治多元化：political pluralis m(41)服务行业：catering industry(42)复合型人才：inter-disci plinary talent(43)岗位培训：on-the-job training（44）高等教育自学考试：self-study higher education examination(45)高新技术产业开发区：high and new technological industrial develop ment zone(46)各大菜系：major styles of cooking(47)各行各 业：every walk of life(48)功夫不负有心人：Everything comes t o him who waits(49)各尽其能：let each person do his best(50)公益活动：public welfare activities(51)工薪阶层：state emplo yee;salaried person(52)过犹不及：going too far ia as bad as
英语专业八级语言学辅导材料
英语专业八级语言学辅导材料 Section 1 What is Linguistics? https://www.360docs.net/doc/8c18727957.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal sysmbols used for human _____. A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 2. Language is _______. A. instinctive B. non-instincitve C. static D. genetically transmitted 3. A linguist regards the changes in language and languages use as ______. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 4. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang 5. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ____. A. interrogative B. directive C. informative D. performative 6. _____ is a grammatical description of a language specially designed as an aid to teaching that language to native or foreign learners. A. Descriptive grammar B. Prescriptive grammar C. Pedagogical grammar D. Universal grammar 7. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be sage and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal. B. Emotive. C. Performative. D. Recreatioal. 8. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrirs caused by time and place, due to this featue of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability. B. Duality. C. Displacement. D. Arbitrariness. 9. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play accoridng to the functiona of language? —A nice day, isn’t it? —Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive. B. Phatic. C. Performative. D. Interpersonal. 10. Which branch of lingusitcs studies the similarities and differences among languages? A. Diachronic linguistics. B. Synchronic linguistics. C. Prescriptive linguistics. D. comparative linguistics. 11. _____ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the
专八人文知识总结
英国文学 一、古英语时期的英国文学（499-1066） 1、贝奥武夫 2、阿尔弗雷德大帝：英国散文之父 二、中古英语时期的英国文学 1、allegory体非常盛行 2、Romance开始上升到一定的高度 3、高文爵士和绿衣骑士 4、Willian Langlaud 《农夫皮尔斯的幻象》 5、乔叟坎特伯雷故事集（英雄双韵体） 6、托马斯.马洛礼《亚瑟王之死》 三、文艺复兴时期的英国文学（伊丽莎白时代）（14-16世纪） 1、托马斯.莫尔《乌托邦》 2、Thomas Wyatt 和Henry Howard引入sonnet 3、Philips Sidney 《The defense of Poesie》 《阿卡迪亚》描述田园生活；现代长篇小说的先驱 4、斯宾塞《仙后》诗人中的诗人；斯宾塞体诗节； 5、莎士比亚： 长篇叙事诗：《维纳斯和阿多尼斯》、《露克丝受辱记》 四大悲剧：哈姆雷特、李尔王、奥赛罗、麦克白 7、本.琼森风俗喜剧（comedy of manners）《人性互异》 8、约翰.多恩“玄学派”诗歌创始人 9、George Herbert 玄学派诗圣
10、弗朗西斯.培根现代科学和唯物主义哲学创始人之一 《Essays》英国发展史上的里程碑 《学术的推进》和《新工具》 四、启蒙时期（18世纪） 1、约翰、弥尔顿：《失乐园》、《为英国人民争辩》 2、约翰、班扬：《天路历程》religious allegory 3、约翰、德莱顿：英国新古典主义的杰出代表、桂冠诗人； 《论戏剧诗》 4、亚历山大.蒲柏：英国新古典主义诗歌的重要代表；英雄双韵体的使用达到登峰造极的使用；《田园组诗》是其最早田园诗歌代表作 5、托马斯、格雷：感伤主义中墓园诗派的代表人物《墓园挽歌》 6、威廉、布莱克：天真之歌、经验之歌； 7、罗伯特、彭斯：苏格兰最杰出的农民诗人； 8、Richard Steel和Joseph Addison合作创办《The tatler》和《the spectator》 9、Samuel defoe 英国现实主义小说的奠基人之一；《鲁滨逊漂流记》；《铲除非国教徒的捷径》，仪表达自己的不满； 10、Jonathan Swift 《一个小小的建议》；《格列佛游记》；《桶的故事》； 11、Samuel Richardson 英国现代小说的创始人；帕米拉；克拉丽莎；查尔斯.格蓝迪森爵士的历史； 12、Henry Fielding 英国现实主义小说理论的奠基人；《约瑟夫。安德鲁》；《汤姆.琼斯》，英国现实主义小说的最高成就； 13、劳伦斯、斯特恩：感伤主义小说的杰出代表，《项狄传》，第一部开创了意识流小说的先驱之作品；《感伤的旅行》 14、Oliver Goldsmith：《好心人》；《屈伸求爱》；《威客菲尔德牧师传》，感伤主义文学； 诗歌《荒村》从新古典主义向浪漫主义过渡的标志； 散文作品《世界公民》； 15、谢里丹：《造谣学校》，莎士比亚之后最杰出的英国喜剧，是整个英国史上最优秀的作品之一；达到英国“风俗喜剧”之巅； 五、维多利亚时期的英国文学（19世纪）
专八语言学必背
专八语言学必背 1. What is Language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. What is Linguistics(语言学)?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. 3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics 3.1 Speech and Writing One general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have. 3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性) A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior. 3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) Studies The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语) This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为) Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 4.The Scope of Linguistics General linguistics is the study of language as a whole. Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences. Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind. Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes. Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics. Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer II. Phonetics(语音学） 1. scope of phonetics Speech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics: Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调）in the process. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节）by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经）and the brain. Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送）between mouth and ear.
英语专八人文知识考试总结
英语专八人文知识考试总结 1 专八考试人文知识考试内容总结 其中英美文学包括英国文学和美国文学。英国文学主要分为六个时期： 1. Old and Medieval English Literature（中古英国文学）。 2. The Renaissance Period（文艺复兴时期）。 3. The Neoclassical Period（新古典主义时期）。 4. The Romantic Period（维多利亚时期）。 5. The Victorian Period（维多利亚时期）。 6. The Modern Period（现代时期）。 美国文学主要分为四个时期： 1. The Literature Around the Revolution of Independence（独立革命前后的文学）。 2. American Romanticism（美国浪漫主义文学）。 3. American Realism（美国现实主义文学）。 4. American Modernism（美国现代主义文学）。 语言学，考生不光要知道语言的本质还要掌握语音学，音位学，形态学，句法学，语义学和语言学的知识。 关于英语国家概况，英语专业的学生都会开设英美概况这门课程，但是专八考试的中需要考生了解的是英语国家概况，不光包括英国和美国，还有其他一些说英语的地区，包括爱尔兰概况，加拿大概况，澳大利亚概况和新西兰概况。 3专八人文知识:英国地理概况 the english channel: the channel is a narrow sea passage which separates england and france
语言学重点知识点整理
1._Phonetics_ studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc. 2._Phonology_ studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 3.Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of _words_. It studies the minimal units of meaning — morphemes and word-formation 4.Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct _sentences_ 5.Semantics examines how _meaning_ is encoded in a language. 6._Pragmatics_ is the study of meaning in context. 7._Sociolinguistics_ is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. 8.In contrast with other linguists, then, _anthropological_ linguists are interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages. 9.Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and _mind_, for example, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. 10.In a narrow sense, _applied_ linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching to foreign and second languages. 11. 1. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds. 12.[d] _voiced stops, alveolar_; [θ] _voiceless fricatives, dent al_; 13.[?] _front, open, low, unrounded_; [i:] _front, close, high, unrounded_; 14. 15. 2. Write the word indicated by each transcription. 16.[itɑr] _guitar_ [tuzdei] _Tuesday_ [twuθbr??] _toothbrush_ 17.[?ph?intm?nt] _appointment_ [p??keik] _pancake_ 18. 19. https://www.360docs.net/doc/8c18727957.html,paring [ɡwo?t] and[??ɡ?r], _goat_ and _anger_ are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /g/. Such variants of a phoneme are called _allophones_ of the same phoneme. In this case, they are said to be in _complementary distribution_. 20. 21. 4.Transcribe the following set of words and mark primary and secondary stress with super- and sub-ticks. 22.repeat _[ri’pit]_, repetitive _[ri’petitiv]_, repetition _[?r?p??t???n]_. 23. 24. 5. Please identify the stressed word, and intonation pattern of the following sentences.
(完整版)英语专八语言学测试题
英语专八人文语言学测试题 1. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A language is a system B language is symbolic C Animal also have language D language is arbitrary 2. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human loanguage is __________. A arbitrary B non-arbitrary C logical D non-productive 3. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the “-ate” in the word “affectionate”? A derivational morpheme B infectional morpheme C free morpheme D prefix 4. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the pair of words kill and dill? A minimal pair B phonemic contrast C closed class words D bound morphemes 5. What is the basic lexical relation between piece and peace? A synonymy B antonymy C homonymy D polysemy 6. /p/ is different from /b/ in ______. A the manner of articulation B the shape of the lips C the vibration of the vocal cords D the place of articulation 7. Of all the speech organs, the ____ is / are the most flexible. A mouth B lips C tongue D vocal cords 8. The phonological features of the consonant /t/ are ______. A voiced stop B voiceless stop C voiced fricative D voiceless fricative 9. The branch of linguistics that studies show context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ________. A semantics B pragmatics C sociaolinguistics D psycholinguistics 10. The utterance “We’ve already eaten ten tons.” Obviously violates the maxim of ______. A quality B quantity C relation D manner 11. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i.e. rounded, except _____. A // 12. The semantic relationship between the two sentences “Mary’s son is an engineer.” And “Mary has a son.” is _______. A entailment B presupposition C synonymy D inconsistency 13. Which of the following sentences is a commissive? A The eqarth is round. B I now prinounce you husband and wife. C I’m really sorry! D I’ll be here tomorrow 14. Semantic feature analysis attempts to account for the _____ of a word according to the presence or abence of a specific semantic feature in the word. A conceptual meaning B social meaning C connotative meaning D affective meaning 15. ____ act is the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning. A Speech B Locutionary C Illocutionary D Perlocutionary 16. _____is a group of people using a given language or dialect. They use the same kind of language or dialect which is highly strtified in terms of social division. A Speech community B Individual dialect C Regional dialect D Social dialect 17. The situation where two very different varieties of the same language are used side by side for two different sets of functions is termed as _______.
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction What is linguistics? Scientific study of language. Interpretation: ①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language; ②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general; ③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data. The scope of linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.
Some important distinctions in linguistics
What is language Definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules; ②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; ④language is human -specific,different from animal communication. Design features of language Proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication are five major design features of human language: ①arbitrariness No logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words) ②productivity It makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signal by its users. ③duality