《公共管理英语》部分课文翻译

《公共管理英语》部分翻译

(目前缺第四章、第六章、第七章翻译，欢迎小伙伴们补充)

第一章

1Opening Administration to the Public

政务公开

Citizens of Bengbu City, Anhui Province, now have the opportunit y to be a visitor at municipal government meetings, thanks to the gov ernment’s recent efforts to open its administration-adopting the Mea sures for Inviting Citizens to Listen to the Administrative Meeting, which came into effect on December 16, 2001.得益于2001年11月16日生效的政府最近实施的邀请市民旁听政府会议的行政事务公开改革措施,安徽省蚌埠市的市民现在有机会参加市政府会议。

Ten citizens are invited to be present at each meeting on admini strative affairs. The number of citizen listeners invited to very imp ortant meeting can vary. The listeners can be deputies to the city’s people’s congress, members of the local committee of the Chinese Peo ple’s Political Consultative Conference, personages of democratic, m embers of the Association of Industry and Commerce and others. They m ust be at least 18 years of age, and willingly to be a visitor at the meeting.每次行政事务会议邀请10名市民参加。邀请参加重要会议的人数是可以变化的。这些旁听者可以是人大代表、政协委员、民主党派的要员、工商联代表及其他。他们要至少18岁，并且愿意参加会议。

Listeners can air their opinions through the government office i n a written form.旁听者可以通过政府部门以书面形式发表他们的意见。Increasing Transparency增加透明度

On the basis of pilot project carried out in some cities and cou ntries, Guangdong Province has asked its governments at or above coun try level to open their administrative affairs during the first half of this year.在部分城市和农村的基础上，今年的上半年，广东省已要求村及村以上的政府行政事务都要公开。

All affairs relating to laws and regulations and to administrati ve decisions that people must follow, as long as they do not involve secrets of the Party or the Central Government, should be open to the public, Contents are as follows:所有有关法律、规章和公民必须遵循的政府决定，只要不涉及政党和中央政府的机密，都要向公众公开。具体内容如下：-Strategy of social and economic development, work targets and t heir accomplishments;经济社会发展战略，工作目标和它们的完成情况；

-Process for making big decisions and policies;重大决策和政策的

主动过程；

-Financial budgets and implementation;财政预算和执行情况；

-Distribution and use of special funds and purchase of important materials;专用基金的分配和重要物资的购买；

-Major capital construction projects and their bidding;主要基本建设计划和它们的招投标；

-Items of public welfare invested by the government;政府投资的公共福利项目；

-Projects examined and approved by the government and their acco mplishments;政府审批的项目及完成情况；

-The accomplishments of work the government promised to do for t he public;政府向公众承事项的完成情况；

-Law enforcement in relation to the interests and rights of citi zens, legal persons and organizations;有关公民、法人、组织权益的法律实施；

-Handing of major incidents;重大事件的处理；

-Selecting and appointing officials, employing public servants a nd appraising of model workers, transferring workers and staff member s in institutional reforms and other issues of public concern;官员的选拔任用，公务员的录用，先进工作者的评价，员工调动的原则改革及公众关心的其他问题；

-Administrative functions and the official duties;政府机构的职能和官员的职责；

-Working content, conditions, procedures and timetable as well a s the result;工作内容、条件、流程和时间以及工作效果；

-Working principles, commitment and the way to sue promise-breac hing activities, as well as investigation results of the cases.工作原则，承担义务、对违反应承担义务的起诉方法及调查结果；

Apart from opening administrative affairs to society, various de partments of the Guangdong Provincial Government have been required t o open their internal system construction, work operations and manage ment, specifically the self-discipline of officials; income and expen diture of the department; management of the human resources, distribu tion of income to workers and staff members as well as their welfare treatment; and other issues.除了向社会公开行政事务，广东省已经要求各政府部门公开机关内部结构，工作运转方式和管理情况，特别是官员的自律情况；部门的收入和经费开支情况，工作人员的收入分配和他们的福利待遇，以及其它事项。

Knowing government administration is one of people’s fundamenta l rights, and the opening of administrative information has become an indispensable part in the government’s administration. In the meant ime, opening government administration is also a main principle of th e WTO, listed on most of its documents. After China’s entry into the WTO, it was required to be better in this field. China’s transformat

ion of government functions lags behind that of its economic growth.了解政府的行政行为是公民基本权力之一，政务公开是政府的应尽的职责。公开行政信息是已经是政府管理中必不可少的部分。同时，政务公开也是WTO的一项主要原则，被列在WTO的大部分文件中。在中国加入WTO后，被要求在这方面做得更好。中国的政府职能转变落后于它的经济增长。

A fresh move the opening of government administration still need s improvement. Experts appealed to the state to place great importanc e on the issue by setting up special department to handle related aff airs, and devising a law on opening government administrations.政务公开作为一项新举措仍需要改进。专家希望政府将其放在更重要位置，通过设置处理相关事务的专门部门，对政务公开进行立法。

Red-Title Document Open to the Public对公众公开红头文件

At the end of last year, the Beijing municipal government, locat ed on Zhengyilu Road, placed a reception desk at the entrance of its west gate from Monday to Friday to receive citizens who come to the B eijing Municipal Government Bulletin. Since the bulletin opened to th e public in early 2002, the telephone at the editorial office has kep t ringing. Many of the calls come from Guangdong, Zhejiang, Heilongji ang provinces and Hong Kong SAR, inquiring about subscription procedu res.在去年底，位于遵义路上的北京市政府，每周一到周五在其西大门入口处放置接待桌以接受市民来征订《北京市政府公告》。早在2002年政府公告向公众公开后，编辑部的电话就一直响着。许多电话来自广东、浙江、黑龙江和香港特区，来咨询征订程序。

The bulletin, which contains government regulations, administrat ive orders and decisions, is popularly known as a “red-title documen t” and is a mystery to most people, because it only reached leaders above bureau level in the past.包括政府规章、行政命令和决定的公文过去常称为红头文件，对大多数人而言是神秘的，因为它过去只发到局级以上干部。

Wei Guiqin, director of the Beijing Huiyuan Law Office, is among the first to subscribe to the bulletin. “The public distribution of the bulletin helps us a lot in our job,” he said.魏贵勤，北京惠元律师事务所所长，是第一批来征订公告的。他说：“公告的公开发行对我们的工作帮助很大。”

The government of many other provinces and cities have also open ed their bulletins to the public, including Henan and Shanxi province s, and cities such as Guangzhou, Wuhan, Qingdao and Yinchuan. The gov ernment of the bulletins are functionally the same as other official documents.许多别的省市也已经向公众公布了公告，如河南、陕西，城市如广州、武汉、青岛和银川。政府公告与其它官方文件功能上是一样的。

Shanghai was the first city to open its bulletin to the public. Since the beginning of last year, the bulletins have been sent not on ly to major institutions and enterprises under the jurisdiction of th e municipal government, but also to 100 selected newspaper and magazi

ne booths, 50 postal zones 50 Xinhua bookstores, where citizens can g et them for free. The bulletins have attracted the attention of many people, most of whom are lawyers and accountants.上海是第一个向公众公布了公告的城市。自去年初，公告不仅通过市政府正常渠道发送到主要公共机构和企业，还发送到经挑选产生的100个报刊亭、50个邮政亭、50个新华书店，在那里市民可以免费取得公告。公告已经引起许多公民的注意，其中大部分是律师和会计。

“Supermarket" of administrative Affairs政务超市

Five years ago, Huang Songji, a laid-off female employee in Nanj ing, invesred 50000 yuan to set up a kindergarten. However, she was s oon asked to close down, as she failed to follow relevant procedures. She sought assistance at the Supermarket of Administrative Affairs, and with guidance by the staff, Huang quickly obtained all necessary procedures.五年前，黄松基，南京一名下岗女工，投资5 万元办了一个育儿园。然而，她很快被勒令关门，因为她没有履行相关手续。她在政务超市寻求帮助，在工作人员的帮助下，她很快办理了所有手续。

What is the Supermarket of Administrative Affairs and how effect ive is it?什么是政务超市？它的效果如何？

The first supermarket was launched by the government of Xiaguan District, Nanjing City, in the residential communities of Xiaoshi and Rehenanlu on October 16, 2000. the government set up its offices in a big hall to handle various administrative affairs, including more t han 40 services related to civil affairs, employment, municipal const ruction, economy, handing of complaints and law enforcement. It indee d has supermarket features of openness, efficiency and a variety of c hoice, hence the name, Supermarket of Administrative Affairs. Five ot her of residential quarters followed suit a year later.第一个政务超市是2000年10月16日在南京下关区热河南路的小石居委会建立的。政府在一个大厅设置办公场所以解决多种行政事务，包括种有关民政事务、劳动就业、市政建设、经济、投诉的处理和法律实施。它的确具有超市的开放、效率和多样化选择的特质，因此被称为政务超市。一年后另五个居民区的政务超市随之成立。

The supermarket practices a responsibility system to solve probl ems, and serve clients. In addition, supervision and feedback procedu res have also been adopted. The system, which enables citizens to lea rn about government administrative affairs, contributes to the govern ment’s effort to open administrative affairs. Sun Wei, a “supermark et” staff member, said that in the past, policies were locked in the office drawer. Now they are placed on the wall, clearly indicating pr oblems and possible timelines for their solution. Furthermore, the te lephone number to contact in cases of complaint against the behavior of “supermarket” employees is also available to the public. Employe es subject to customer complaints are given three chances, and penalt ies include criticism the first time, bonus deduotion the second time,

and dismissal the third time.政务超市提供了一个解决问题、服务委托人的负责任的系统。另外，监督和反馈程序已经被采用。这个能够使公众了解政府行政事务的系统，归功于政府的政务公开。孙伟，一名“政务超市”的工作人员说，在过去政策是被锁在办公室的抽屉里。现在是挂在墙上，清楚地标明问题和解决这些问题的时间。更重要的是，针对政务超市工作人员的投诉电话是向公众公开的。工作人员有三次被客户投诉的机会，处罚包括第一次批评，第二次扣奖金，第三次解雇。

Since district government powers have been transferred to the “s upermarket”, the service items are wider than those formerly offered by the residential community, such as the approval of small loans to help the poor and victims of natural disasters; handling applications for subsidies if their living standards is below the poverty line; g ranting licenses to small restaurants; leasing newspaper booths and r egistering the unemployed. Apart from these services, the “supermark et” has also set up a training room, a law consultation room and a s uggestion box, as well as a telephone hotline to answer questions. In addition, government leaders regularly visit the “supermarket” to interact with the public in person.自从地方行政权力转到“超市”，服务项目比过去居委会提供的范围更大了，如对贫困户和突发自然灾害的小额贷款的审批，受理低保补助申请，小酒店许可证的核发，报刊摊位的出租和失业登记。除了这些服务，“超市”还提供一个服务间，一个咨询室和意见箱，一部回答问题的热线电话。另外，政府领导定期到“超市”同公众面对面交流。

Many citizens have expressed their satisfaction with the “super market”.许多市民对“超市”表示满意。

“It quickly solves problems, and shortens the psychological di stance between leaders and the masses. Surveys recently conducted in five ‘supermarkets’ indicated that citizens are satisfied with meas ures,” said Xu Xuwqin, who is in charge of the publicity of the Xiag uan residential community.“它很快解决问题，缩短了领导和群众之间的心理距离。对五个“超市”的调查表明群众对这些措施是满意的”许学琴，一名居委会宣传部门负责人说。

The “supermarket” of administrative service in Nanjing has exert ed a positive influence to the entire country. Similar supermarkets h ave opened in Shenyang, Shanghai and Fuzhou.南京这种行政服务“超市”已经在整个国家产生了正面的影响。在沈阳、上海和福州都建了类似的超市。

The “supermarket” in Shanghai, known as the Center of Residentia l Affairs, now has 80 branches in the entire city, offering more than 50 services. A civil affairs official said that in the next three ye ars, every community and town would set up such as a “supermarket”to form a network covering the entire area.上海的“超市”，作为居民事

务的中心，现在整个城市有80个分支，提供50项服务。一名国内事务的政府官员说在未来三年，每一个社区和集镇都要建类似的“超市”以形成覆盖整个地区的网络。

Media reports recently stated that relevant departments have pla nned to set up a multi-functional and multi-level service system thro ughout the country, which offers services on personnel matters, domic ile registration, matrimonial registration, enterprise registration, tax payment, license distribution and the approval of land utilizatio n. Service centers and related ranches will be set up in densely popu lated communities. Meanwhile, a standardized service network and unif ied regulations will also be established, and related workers will we ar name tags for the benefit of customers.媒体报道，有关部门已经计划在全国建设多功能、多层次的服务体系，以提供人事事务、居民登记、婚姻注册、企业登记交税、许可证的分配和土地使用权的审批。服务中心和有关的分支机构将被建在人口密集的社区。同时，标准的服务网络和统一的制度也将建立，相关工作都将在为将在为顾客的目标下进行。

“E-Government”电子政府

Placing government administrative affairs on the Internet appear s to be a growing world trend for government working toward open admi nistration. Resources on government work available on the Internet ca n be effectively utilized. Furthermore, this practice will enhance th e transparency if the government, reduce administrative expense, impr ove work efficiency and facilitate the construction of a diligent and honest government.将政府的行政事务在互联网上公布越来越成为世界上政府向公众公开事务的一种倾向。研究表明，提供在互联网的政府工作是被有效利用的。更重要的是，这个实践将提高政府的透明度，降低行政费用，提高工作效率并更利于数字政府和诚信政府的建设。

China has a long way to go before it can develop an online gover nment. However, beginning in the mid-1980s when China first called fo r office automation, up until 1998 when China began to develop e-gove rnment project, it has promoted e-commerce in government departments, using the Internet to release information, handling day-to-day offic e business and offering other services.中国在发展在线政府还有很长的路要走。然而，自80年代中期中国首先提出办公自动化到1998年开始发展电子政府项目，它已经促进政府部门的网上交流，日常办公事务的处理和提供其他帮助。

In recent years, China has rapidly developed the e-commerce deve lopment and implementation. Second, many government web sites with in creasingly rich content and sophisticated functions have appeared. A recent survey stated that more than 2200 government web sites current ly exist in the entire country, and have played a major role in drivi ng the construction of information industry.近年来，中国加快电子政府

的发展。首先，工商部门，海关税务和公共安全部门已经率先加快电子政府的发展和设备配置步伐。其次，许多具有越来越多内容和高级功能的政府网站已经出现。最近的调查表明整个国家有2200个政府网站，已经在促进信息工业建设方面承担了主要角色。

A bilingual web site, Chinashanghai, in both English and Chinese, was launched on September 28, 2001. it serves as a platform for gove rnment information dissemination for the benefit the citizens.“中国上海”，一个英汉双语网站，在2001年9月28日建成。它为市民提供政府信息传播服务平台。

Chinashanghai is devoted to the establishment of an “e-governme nt.” Its home page, entitled Today’s Event, provides information on major activities and events, and reports on various hot topics of dis cussion. Pages containing government bulletins, government documents, regulations and other information have also been released. The Law a nd Regulations page introduces various rules and regulations, the Sha nghai Brief page provides information on the least development trends in the city, and the Investment page offers information on the inves tment environment and various investment policies, explaining the urb an construction plan, the development of the Pudong New Area, the dev elopment of development zones and investment projects. The Services p age, on the other hand, provides information on topics more closely r elated to people’s lives, such as weather, transport, healthcare, ed ucation and tourism. This page also offers legal assistance to disadv antaged groups. The Business Guidance page provides useful informatio n on competent institutions, as well as their addresses, contact deta ils, procedures for handling certain affairs, and channels for dealin g with lawsuits. Finally, the Handling Affairs Online page enables us ers to inquire on certain items, and download online forms and applic ations.“中国上海”致力于电子政府的创建。它的主页标有今日大事，提供主要活动和事件的信息，多种热点讨论话题的报道。页面包括政府公告，政府公文、规章和其它已公布的信息。法律规章的页面介绍了多种规章制度，网站的首页提供了城市最新发展趋势，投资页面提供投资环境信息和各种投资政策，说明城市建设规划、浦东新区的发展、开发区的发展和投资项目。另一方面，服务页面提供诸如天气、交通、保健、教育和旅游等更贴近百姓生活的内容。这一页也对弱势群体提供法律救助。商务导航页面提供有法定资格协会有用信息，如地址、联系方式、具体事务处理的程序、诉讼的渠道。最后，在线事务处理使用户能够咨询具体事务，在线下载表格和申请。

Chinashanghai will also connect with its affiliated stations to establish a better government network by the end of this year. In add ition, Shanghai plans to set up a large portal within the next five y ears, which will be among China’s first-class ones and match interna tional advanced level. By the end of the 10th Five-Year Plan period (2 001-2005), all the government departments related to social managemen

t and services will be on the network.到今年底，“中国上海”也将增加联网的附属站点以更好实现政府网络工作。另外，上海计划在下一个五年建立一个在中国处于一流、达到世界水平的大型门户网站。至第十个五年计划期末，所有的与社会管理和服务的政府部门都要实现网上工作。

Open Urban Planning公开城市建设规划

Over the past two years, Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin have mad e public their city construction plan, a change from their former clo sed-door working style. The procedures and timetable for the examinat ion and approval of projects, regulations and laws, and technological indexes in relation to the projects are now also out in the open, mu ch to the great enthusiasm of the citizens.过去两年间，北京，上海和天津已经公布了他们的城市建设规划，这和以前的关门工作是个改变。项目申报审批的程序和时间、规章制度、项目相关的技术流程标准现在都公开，更多是广大热心的市民。

Last October, Beijing held an exhibition on the overall city pla nning. During holidays and weekends, the 3000-square0meter hall recei ved about 1500 people each day. “We have not expected so many citize ns to be so interested in city planning,” said Qiu Yue, a member of the Beijing Municipal City Planning Committee.去年10月，北京举行了城市整体建设规划展览会。在节假日和周日，平方米的展览厅每天接待1500名来访者。“我们没有想到有这么多市民对城市建设规划感兴趣。”邱越，北京市城市规划委员会的工作人员说。

Many visitors filled thick suggestion books with feedback, provi ding constructive ideas, such as building another world trade center in the north; retaining the lay-out of the narrow alleys and the cour tyard homes; and informing citizens on city construction projects on time. The exhibition organizers then sorted the suggestions and deliv ered them to the decision-making department.许多来访者写了厚厚的建议，提出了建设性的建议，如在北部建设另一个世界贸易中心，及时将城市建设项目通知市民。随后，展览会的组织者整理了这些建议，将它们提供给了决策部门。

“Beijing city planning to the public shows the government’s d etermination to promote the opening up of administration affairs, and this is a significant development,” said a visitor.“将北京城市建设规划向公众展示表明了政府在促进行政事务开放的决心，这是一个有重要意义的进步”以名来访者说。

Zhou Chang, Secretary general of the China Architectural Society, agreed. “The opening up of the urban planning process can improve t hings greatly, as major decisions will go through the approval of exp erts, the suggestions of citizens and the supervision of the media,”said Zhou.周畅，中国建筑协会秘书长同意这种观点。他说“城市规划的公开程序会使极大促进规划工作，因为决策要经过专家的审核、市民的建议和舆论的监督”

Shan Qixiang, director of the Beijing Municipal City Planning Co mmittee, said the opinions of the both experts and the masses will be pooled together before a decision on any important plans for urban c onstruction are reached.单启祥，北京市城市规划委员会主任说在任何重要城市建设计划做出之前所有专家和群众的意见都将会被集中起来。

Administrative affairs 行政事务

Financial budget 财政预算

Domicile registration 居民登记

Matrimonial registration 婚姻登记

Handling Affairs Online 在线事务办理

第二章

为什么要进行公共管理改革？

公共管理改革通常被认为是一种达到目的的手段，而并非目的本身。更准确说，我们可以认为它是一种潜在地达到多种目的的手段。这些目的包括：在公共支出中形成节余（经济），提高公共服务的质量，使政府的运作更加有效，增加被选用的和实施的政策变得有效的机会。为了实现这些重要的目标，公共管理改革还可能为一系列中间目标提供服务，包括强化政治家对官员的控制和把公务员从官僚主义的限制中解放出来，因为这些限制阻碍了他们进行管理的机会；增强政府的政策和计划对立法部门和公民的责任性。最后，但并非最不重要的是，我们还应该提到公共管理改革的象征性的和合法性的好处。这些好处对于政治家而言，至少可被人们认为他们正在有所作为。比如宣布进行改革，批评官僚主义，表扬新的管理技术，许诺在未来改进服务，重组部门和办事机构——所有这些内容都能把有利的注意力吸引到主张这些事情的政治家身上。一个愤世嫉俗的人可能会发现，在如今，由于地方、国家和国际限制等复杂的相互作用，单个政府独立行动的权力而日益受到质疑，政府的部长们通常所能做的事情——以充满活力的面貌出现仅需极小的直接代价——就是在他们自己的统治机器内部宣布改革。这对那些在提出和执行这样的倡议时几乎总要扮演重要角色的高级官员也有合法性的好处。他们可能会因为参与“现代化”和“提高效率”的工作而获得尊重。

如果管理改革真会产生更廉洁、更有效并具有更高服务质量和更有效规划的政府，如果它同时还会强化政治控制，把管理者解放出来，让他们进行管理，使

政府更透明，并且能提升最积极参与的部长和官员们的形象，那么它被广泛鼓吹也就不足为奇。不幸的是，事情并非如此简单。众多证据表明，管理改革会走入歧途。它们可能无法产生所谓的好处。它们甚至可能导致相反的结果，从而使相关的行政过程（在某些重要的方面）变得比以前更糟。比如，某个地方机关一项为老人和残废人提供“家庭帮助”（家庭照顾）的计划按照准市场的原则进行了重新修改，将购买服务的当局和提供服务的成员分离开来，我们可能认为这是一项典型的“改革”。然而，如果我们发现，为这项服务而起草的合同文件厚达700页，而实际提供的服务在数量上和质量上只有非常小的改变时，质疑就开始产生了。我们会想，在双方之间建立更多的信任也许会是更好的选择，这样，合同文件就会简短得多（甚至可能根本不需要合同），并且会大大减少监督费用。

此外，即便一项特定的改革确实在上面提到的一个或两个目标方面（节余或质量的改进）获得了“成功”，它也不可能完全获得成功。实际上，我们在后面会说明，行政改革中导致的权衡和两难困境很常见，因此，某一项或两项目标的实现很可能会被其他方面较差的表现“抵消”：“官僚体制中专门的决策者遵循的规则是，一次针对一个目标采取措施，从而控制平衡——但他们没有认识到，紧缩某一项指标意味着放松另一项指标”。例如，如果我们对公务员实施更有效的政治监督和控制，我们能否同时赋予他们更多的自由和管理的灵活性？乐观主义者会说能，他们会提出一个更清晰、更简单的规则，从而使管理者在规则范围之内“获得创造性”。怀疑主义者会说不能，他们会指出，有调查证据表明，连管理者自己都觉得政治“干预”增加了，期望政治家在诸如社会安全、医保、教育或监狱服务等政治上很敏感的领域里会“不画蛇添足”，那是不现实的。

不管怎样，公共管理改革只是达到第一段中所提到的期望目标的手段之一。说得更准确点，对公共管理改革本质的任何描述都需要考虑到政府的表现可以通过很多途径得到改善，并考虑到管理改革经常与其他政策方案联系在一起。在对很多国家的行政发展进行比较之后，有一个学者最近发现：“行政改革…是所有政策表现的一个部分，并不是一套独立的技术工作”。

改善政府表现的其他途径包括政治改革（例如选举制度或立法程序的改变）以及关键政策的根本性改变（例如新的宏观经济管理政策，劳动力市场改革，或社会政策的根本性的改变）。本书导言中提到过新西兰的案例，在这个案例中新西兰把管理改革同宏观经济政策以及选举制度的根本改变组合在一起。

许多评论人士注意到，使情况变得更复杂的是改革的滞后性，这种滞后性大大影响了公共管理改革本身。公共部门程序和结构的重大变化所产生的所有好处一般要在改革计划开始后的3年、4年、5年甚至更晚才能获得。首先，改革需要新的立法。然后需要对现状进行分析，而后则要设计、形成和修改新的操作程序，还要训练人员按程序操作，规定新角色，确定合适的奖励机制，恰当地制定新的评估制度，通知服务的使用者和利益攸关方，还要努力减少所有这些创新可能在使用者和工作者中引起的焦虑。但这却不是最高层的政治家乐意接受的时间表。他们关心更短期的效果：下一次选举，下一届政府的改组，甚至当天的电视新闻。政治注意力的焦点从一个事项到另一个事项的变化周期要比复杂的组织变化能够完成的目标快得多。虽说情况总是如此，但政治家对于“现在就能展示点什么”的需要和组织改革者需要时间、努力和持续性之间的矛盾却总是产生，这也许正是许多西方民主国家政治过程强化和加速的产物。

第三章

行政及地方公共服务改革：简介

80年代以来，有很强的公共服务改革及现代化的运动。权力下放及自由化－容许市场发挥提供公共服务的功能－是其中两个重要趋势。法国及西班牙的发展能清楚表达这种趋势，而英国则更倾向集权，虽然在一些情况下权力也会下放到地方。在西班牙，权力下放是一个国家的选择，也是宪法所规定；同时，公共服务自由化也和社区融合以及开放市场连在一起。

地方管理的现代化不一定经常依照一个统一的、全球的计划；很多时候，反而是对地方税收的不稳定状况以及人们对地方服务需求的增加的回应。在英国，这个概念则比较持续的在发展，目的为引进一种受到私营企业影响的新的公共管理哲学，结果也叫英国的公共服务逐渐离开其自19世纪中叶赖以建立的原则。

权力下放标志着地方民主的回归，而地方政府代表很快也扮演这种角色。地方自治的确立包含着各方面的公共政策，包括社会服务、经济发展、文化、基建、城市规划及环境保护等。渐渐的，一种管治模式慢慢在三个国家建立，虽然只有在英国它以法律（2000年的地方政府法）被间接的确认下来。这个原则就成为了服务创新以及地方回应公民的集体需要的基础。地方的行动能力逐渐在扩展；而一些跨地方的功能性组织也在发展。

但是，法国与西班牙的情况跟英国不太一样。在法国及西班牙，权力下放意味着对地方政府的赋权并给予更大的自由。而在英国，在地方层次的“福利国家化”反而让中央政府对地

方有更大的控制权。80年代以及贝利亚政府的改革在这方面是一致的。公共管理的现代化遵循着之前提到的原则而进行，实际上让地方政府的权力有所缩减。原因是一方面，中央政府对某些政策范畴加强了控制（如教育，地方税收上限）；另一方面，一些地方公共服务被市场化。再者，新的管理随伴着新的绩效标准以及新的监控方式。

除了权力下放，国家公共服务的自由化，随伴着欧洲新的关于公共工程合约法律的出台，加强了地方公共服务供给的竞争，也增加了地方政府选择地方服务管理模式的自由。原则上，该法律并没有指定使用私营或委托管理方式。但是，它大大的增加了使用市场力量的义务。针对法国及西班牙的地方公共服务法律也显示出这些改革的范畴及现实。研究这两个国家的系统特别相关，因为使用私营管理的要求就在它们的传统中。私营的管理很多时候假设有私人的资金来源来支持一项服务甚至一项基建；私营公司的管理也意味着以商业原则去提供服务，并受到私营公司的相关法例规管。在西班牙的法律，地方公共组织的地位非常有弹性，很多时候也是通过立法来产生。这些组织受到私营企业的法律规管，并使用通用的管理系统来管理，员工只现有一般劳工的地位。这些要求、标准制约着地方选择服务管理模式的自由。

第五章 What Is Community?

什么是社区

Communities are natural human associations based on ties of rela tionship and shared experiences in which we mutually meaning in our l ives, meet needs, and accomplish the persons we were meant to become, discover meaning, generate ethical values, and develop a culture a c ulture which would be impossible for single, isolated individuals to accomplish alone.社区是基于各种相互联系和共同经历而形成的自然的人类组织.在社区里,我们的生活互相影响,包括如何满足需要,如何成为我们理想中的人,意义的发现,伦理价值的产生,以及开创一种文化.这种文化对于单独的,孤立的个体来说是不可能创造的.

When we talk about community, we talk about two things simultane ously. Community is located in space and time and it exists beyond sp ace and time. Community is embodied in a space, structure, and presen ce, but community transcends location; it cannot confined by structur e or mere history.当我们谈论社区时，我们同时谈论两个方面。社区处于时空中,但它能超越时空而存在。社区体现为一定的空间,结构和现在，但它又超越了地点,并且不可能被仅仅局限于某种结构或历史。

Embodied Community社区的具体性

Every one of us needs community. Community arises spontaneously because of an innate sociality of the human condition. With relativel y rare exceptions community has been the form of human associated lif e by which people have related throughout history. Your self cannot, in fact, reach its full realization in isolation, but only as you are nurtured, guided, and suffused with life of the community in which y ou exist.我们每一个人都需要社区。由于人类所固有的社会性，社区就自然的

产生了。除了相对罕见的特例,社区是与人类有关的生活方式,通过这种方式人们才在历史中互相有了联系。事实上,光靠你自己孤立的力量不可能实现自我的充分发展，只有当你在所生存的社区中被培养，教导，充分融入生活才能做到这一点。

Localized community needs to be embodied to have existence. In i ts purest sense, community is an arena of social interaction, a milie u of social relationships in which we engage one another at a time an d in a place where we gather together. For many communities to have p ermanence, they often become identified with physical space that the community claims as its own. This could be a territory or a neighborh ood that we identify with a name and includes homes, schools, and sho ps. Communities such as a local church, neighborhood, or ethnic or ci vil association often develop a structure or a form of association, i nfuse it with values, and derive meaning form it. The location or the structure becomes the embodiment of and symbolizes community. Thus i t is appropriate to talk about community as a neighborhood or associa tion that exists in space and time, that has permanence and structure.区域化的社区需要被实现才能存在。在最基本的定义里，社区是社会交际的舞台，是我们在某时或聚集在某地而形成的各种社会关系的环境.对许多能够持久的社区来说，它们通常因为拥有自己的地理范围而被人们所确认.这个地理范围可以是国家的领土,也可以是包括家庭、学校和商店的有自己名称的居民区. 诸如地方教会、居民区以及种族或市民协会的这样一个社区,经常会形成一个有着自己的价值观及相关意义系统的社区结构.社区就是通过所划分的地理范围的和所形成的社区结构来具体得到实现的.因此,把社区作为某居民区或协会来谈论是适当的,因为它们有固定结构和永久性,在时空中具体存在.

Transcendent Community社区的超越性

Although a community can be found in a locality or be embodied b y a structural form, community is never simple a static physical loca tion that we inhabit, as social ecologists assert; nor is it merely a structure or mechanical process, as systems theorists suggest. Commu nity is the act by which we engage one another, experience relationsh ips, and become a people. Wherever humans exist, we spontaneously see k and form community.虽然社区有一定地理范围或结构形式，但社区决不仅仅象社会生态学家所断言的那样,"是一个我们所居住的静止不变的地理区域"，也不仅仅是系统理论家所提出的"一个结构或机械的过程".社区是一种行为,通过这个行为我们互相交往，体验关系，并且成为一个民族。只要是有人类存在的地方，我们就会自发地寻找并形成社区。

Communities are an indelible component of the human condition, n ot relative to a particular historical era, place, or time. Neither a re communities unique to one race, national, or cultural group. Commu nity transcends history and cannot be contained by mere history. Deep ly tooted in our nature, community may be said to be a universal huma n phenomenon, not contingent on circumstances.社区是人类环境的一个不

可或缺的组成部分.它并不是相对于特定的历史时代、地点或时间来说的,也不是专属于某一种族、民族或者文化组织的。社区超越历史，并且不可能仅仅被历史所包含。由于人类的天性使然,，社区可以说是一种人类的普遍现象，并非伴随某条件发生的偶然现象。

Community transcends location. As people in community move from place to place, we carry our community with us. When the nation of Is rael was destroyed and most of her people were exiled to Babylon in 5 97 B.C. , they lost their land, but they never lost themselves, their community. They were then, and 2600 years later remain a people, a c ommunity, regardless of where they are located.社区超越地点。当社区内的人们迁移时,社区也随之迁移。公元前597年,当以色列人的国家被摧毁，并且大多数人被放逐到巴比伦时,他们丧失了他们的土地，但他们未曾丧失自己以及他们的社区。不管他们生存在哪里.他们那时是,并且2600年后依然是一个民族和社区.

Community transcends its structure. The original group that call ed themselves “people of the Way” was a small association whose mem bers met in the Temple as Jerusalem, in one another’s homes, and who owned everything in common. Christian churches today are far differen t from those original communities in the way they are structures and governed, and in the manner and language in which worship is conducte d. Yet they remain communities untied in a common belief and heritage.社区超越它的结构。最初,一个自称为“路上的人们”的小组是一个很小的协会,这个协会的成员共享一切,在耶路撒冷的圣殿或彼此的家里祭拜上帝. 现在的基督教会在结构和管理上以及祭拜的方式和语言上，与那些原始的社区远远不同。然而，他们仍然是同一个有着相同信仰和传统的松散的社区。

Community transcends time, a community exists before we were bor n and will live on after we die. We develop a shared memory and obtai n a sense of ourselves by means of our common history together. The s ymbols and meaning that community incorporates, while origination in time, become timeless.社区超越时间。一个社区在我们出生前就存在，并且会延续到我们死去之后。我们通过共同的历史来形成共同的记忆以及自我意识。社区所包含的象征和意义，虽然起源于时间，但会变得永恒。

There is not just one model of community or one community ideal. Each community is a unique blending of the people of which it is com posed. The many good communities that come into being add to the shap e and texture of human existence. The more communities that develop, therefore, the more opportunities for us to explore alternative ways of being in the world, and different ways of achieving richness of ch aracter.社区并非只有一个模式，也不存在某一理想的社区模式。每个社区都是其组成人民的独特的联合。许多成立的好社区丰富了人类存在的形式和结构。因此，建立越多社区，我们就会有更多机会来探索在世上生存的可能方式，同时也能探索使自己个性丰满的不同方式。

第八章

The Economic Perspective for the People’s Republic

of China

中国经济前景

With a strong performance in the trade sector after World Trade Organization accession, record inflow of foreign direct investment, a nd large fixed investment, the country continued its rapid economic e xpansion in 2002, recording one of its fastest rates in 5 years. Stro ng economic performance is expected to continue, though growth will s low slightly in 2003-2004. however, many challenges remain, including slow growth in rural incomes, the need to create jobs and an enablin g environment for the private sector, growing disparities between the coastal and interior provinces, and financial sector weaknesses.随着加入WTO后贸易部门的强劲表现，创纪录的外国直接投资的流入，以及大量的固定资产投资，2002年，我国经济继续高速扩张，创下5年来最快的速度。强劲的经济表现可以期望继续下去，尽管2003-2004年增长速度将会稍慢。然而同时，许多挑战还存在，包括：农村收入增长缓慢，增加就业的需求，私营企业的需要更宽松的环境，沿海与内地省份的发展差距，以及金融部门的发展落后。

1. Macroeconomic Assessment宏观经济评估

GDP growth in PRC accelerated to 8% in 2002 from 7.3% in 2001, m oving higher than 7.8% average of the previous 5 years. This higher t han expected figure resulted from exports performing better than anti cipated, surging foreign direct investment (FDI), and buoyant domesti c demand. Expansionary fiscal and monetary policies also played a rol e.中国的GDP增长率从2001年的7.3%加速到2002年的8%，快于过去五年7.8%的平均水平。比预计的数字快是由于出口表现好于预期，外国直接投资（FDI）的涌入，以及活跃的国内需求。扩张性的财政与货币政策也扮演了角色。

Industry (including construction) was the key engine of economic growth, with value added accelerating to 9.9% in 2002 from 8.7% in 2 001. electronic equipment, transportation equipment, and chemical pro ducts all did well. A surge in FDI and export growth resulted in the value added of the foreign-funded enterprises increasing by 13.3%. su pported mainly by growth in transportation, telecommunications, and r eal estate, the services sector expanded by 7.3% in 2002 (though beca use of weaknesses in the statistical system, growth in this sector is probably underestimated). Despite a spring drought, agriculture sect or performance improved slightly compared with the previous 2 years, Grain output, which dropped by 2.1% in 2001, rose by 1%.工业（包含建设）是经济增长的重要龙头，产值增长率从2001年的8.7%加速到2002年的9. 9%。电子设备，交通运输，化学产业发展的都很好。FDI的涌入和出口的增长导致外资企业增长率达到13.3%。主要受交通运输业，电讯业，房地产业的增长支持，服务业部门在2002年增长了7.3%（由于统计方法的缺陷，这一部门的增长

很可能被低估）。尽管受到春旱影响，农业部门的表现比过去两年稍有改善。谷物出口下降率2.1%,改善了1%。

A surge in fixed, asset investment, which grew by 16.1%, stimula ted domestic demand. Private investment rose by 15.7% in the year, fa ster than in 2001. Across sectors, investment in real estate was part icularly strong, registering a 21.9% increase in 2002, as housing ref orms and more housing mortgage loans led to buoyant property market. Supported by the Government’s western region development strategy, i nvestment in that region grew by 20.6, faster than in the central (2 0%) and eastern (16.2) regions.汹涌的固定资产投资增长了16.1%，刺激了国内需求。私营资本投资增长了15.7%，快于2001年。跨越各行业之间，房地产业的投资尤其强劲，2002年登记了21.9%的增长，因为住房改革和更多的住房抵押贷款带动资产市场的上扬。受政府的西部大开发发展战略的支持，西部投资增长了20.6%，快于中部的20%和东部的16.2%。

Domestic consumption strengthened by 8.8%. the steady growth in domestic spending was mainly driven by urban households,, which spent 10% more than in the previous year. Rural residents spending registe red a 6.8% increase, reflecting the continued widening of urban-rural income disparities. Per capita urban disposable income grew by 13.4% in real terms to exceed CNY7700 ($928), while per capita real rural cash income increased by only 4.8% to reach CNY2476 ($298). The rapid increase in urban incomes triggered a purchasing boom for private ca rs, telecommunications equipment and houses grew by 69% and 39%, resp ectively.国内消费增长了8.8%。国内消费的平稳增长主要是由于城市居民家庭，他们比去年多支出了10%。农村居民消费增长了6.8%，反映了城乡居民收入差距的扩大在继续。每个城市居民实际的可分配收入增长了13.4%达到7700元，而每个农村居民现金收入只增长了4.8%达到2476元。城市居民收入的高速增长引发了对私人汽车、电信产品、住房的购买高潮。2002年，汽车进口增长了77%，通讯设备和住房分别增长了69%和39%。

As economic restructuring continued, employment in the state-own ed sector an urban collectives continued decreasing. The number of em ployees in the state-owned sector fell by 4.6 million in 2001 and by the end of 2002 had fallen by a further 4.8 million. Excluding smalle r private and informal sector activities, employment in the non-state -owned sector increased by 3 million in 2002. Based on official stati stics, which underestimate the problem, the urban registered unemploy ment rate rose from 3.6% in 2001 to 4% in 2002. If workers at state-o wned enterprises (SOEs) who had not been reemployed were included, th e adjusted unemployment rate would have been more than 7%. The develo pment of an urban social safety net and reform of social security are needed to ameliorate the social costs of the economic reform program.随着经济结构调整的继续，国有制部门和城市集体制部门的就业继续下降。国有部门雇员2001年减少了460万人，到2002年底之前又多减少了480万人。排除

掉更小的私人或非正式的部门活动，2002年非国有部门的雇员增长了300万人。根据官方的统计，城市登记失业率从2001年的3.6%增长到4%，它有可能低估了问题。如果将国有企业的下岗工人包含在内，调整后的失业率将会超过7%。改善经济改革问题的社会成本，需要发展城市社会保障和改革社会保险。

2.Policy Developments政策发展

Fiscal policy has played a key role in stimulating the PRC’s ec onomic growth over the past 5 years. Then Ministry of Finance estimat ed that four consecutive fiscal stimulus packages contributed 1.5, 2, 1.7, and 1.8 percentage points to GDP growth in the years 1998-2001, respectively. The Government issued CNY150 billion in special bonds to finance the public deficit in 2002. these bonds were mainly used t o finance public sector projects under construction, development proj ects in the western region, technological upgrading of key enterprise s, projects to divert to divert water from the south to the north, an d rural infrastructure.财政政策在过去五年扮演了刺激中国经济增长的关键角色。财政部估计在1998-2001年，四个连续的财政激励packages分别对当年的GDP做出了1.5,2.0,1.7,和1.8的贡献。2002年，政府发行了1.5亿特别债券资助公共赤字。这些公债主要用于资助在建的公共部门工程，西部地区的发展项目，重点企业的技术升级改造，南水北调工程，以及农村基础设施建设。

To promote the development of an integrated national market and fair competition between enterprise in different regions, the Governm ent changed the methodology of income tax sharing between the central and local governments. From I January 2002, corporate income tax rev enues were no longer divided according to the jurisdiction of the ent erprise. Except for several special industries, most of the corporate income tax and all personal income tax revenue were shared between t he central and local authorities at a fixed ratio. The central Govern ment used the income tax increase resulting from the reform for trans fer payments from the central budget to local authorities, especially those in the central and western regions. Government procurement pro cedures were also strengthened.为了促进国内市场一体化的发展以及不同地区企业的公平竞争，政府改变了中央和地方政府对所得税的分配方法。从2002年1月1日起，公司所得税收入不再根据企业的管辖划分。除了几个特别的行业，绝大部分公司所得税和所有的个人所得税收入按照固定的比例被中央和地方分享。The central government used the income tax increase resulting fro m the reform for transfer payments from the central budget to local a uthorities, especially those in the central and western regions. Gove rnment procurement procedures were also strengthened.中央政府为转拨款项使用了所得税增量起因于改革从中央预算到地方政府，特别是那些在中央和西部地区。政府采购规程也被加强了。

With WTO accession, the Government accelerated the pace of refor ming then domestic economy. A series of adjustments in fiscal and tax policies was made in the first year after WTO accession including:

(i)reducing tariffs on more than 5300 commodities, resulting in the g eneral tariff level dropping from 15.3% to 12% ( and further to 11% i n early 2003); (ii) eliminating different treatments between domestic and foreign enterprise, such as unifying accounting standards, by ap plying the same tax rate reduction on investment in encouraged sector s and in the western region; and (iii) raising the export rebate rate s on cotton, rice, wheat, and corn exports from 5% to 13%.随着加入wt o组织，政府加速了改革国内经济的步伐。在加入WTO的第一年后，做出了一系列财税政策的调整，包括：（i）超过5300种商品的关税被降低，致使整体关税水平从15.3%降低到12.0%（2003年以前降低到11%）;(ii)消除国内和国外企业的差别对待，例如统一会计标准，对在被鼓励发展的部门和西部地区的投资适用相同的税率减免。(iii)将棉花，大米，小麦，玉米的出口退税率从5%提高到1 3%。

On the monetary front, the Government adopted several measures t o stimulate domestic demand and took substantial steps to fulfill its WTO commitments. Concerned that the decline in SOCB lending could a ggravate deflationary pressure, PBC adopted the following measures: (i) it cut the 1-year lending rate by 0.5 percentage point to 5.3% in February; (ii) it raised the target growth rate for M2 from 13% to 1 4% in May; and (iii) it issued a directive in mid-2002 urging SOCBs t o increase lending to consumers and small and medium enterprise (SME s).在货币阵线上，政府采取一些措施刺激国内需求并且迈出坚定的步伐去履行它在WTO的承诺。考虑到国有银行的贷款下降会恶化通货紧缩的压力，中国人民银行采取了以下措施：（i）在二月将一年期贷款利率降低了0.5百分点到5.3%；（ii）在五月将M2的目标增长率从13%调到14%；（iii）在2002年中发布指令催促各商业银行对消费者和中小企业增加贷款额度。

3. 2003-2004年展望

The economy will face downward pressure over the next 2 years. W ithin a less expansionary fiscal policy, low growth in the rural sect or, and the impact of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), econo mic growth is forecast at 7.3% for 2003.未来两年经济将要面对下降的压力。由于较为稳健的财政政策，农村部门的低增长，SARS的影响，2003年经济增长预计为7.3%。

After record trade levels and government spending in 2002, expor ts and investment growth will slow in 2003. First, exports will not m atch 2002’s rate of expansion as growth in import demand in its bigg est markets, the US and Japan, is expected to be modest and growth of imports will exceed that of exports, resulting in a smaller trade su rplus. Second, the Government’s growing budget deficit will limit th e continued use of fiscal stimulus packages. Worries about rising deb t are expected to constrain government bond sales to finance more inf rastructure and construction projects. There is a growing need to red uce debts in other sectors of the economy as the Government contempla

tes another huge bank bailout and ways to fund its fledging pension s ystem. As the effectiveness of fiscal stimulus tapers off in 2003, gr owth of investment in fixed assets will rely more heavily on the priv ate sector and FDI.在创纪录的贸易水平和政府开销的2002年过去后，2003年的出口和投资增长将变慢。首先，出口将不会达到2002年的增长率，因为美国和日本这两个最大市场，进口需求的增长预计会变得适度，并且进口的增长将会超过出口，导致贸易顺差的变少。第二，政府的预算赤字将会限制一揽子积极财政政策的继续作用。对增长的债务的担心预计将会抑制政府公债的销售，其会投资更多的基础设施投资和建设工程。

Although consumption will be robust, the consumption pattern may change with more money being spent on housing, cars, and tourism. Ho wever, services will suffer from the spread of SARS. Due to large exc ess capacity in many industries and cheap imports related to WTO trad e liberalization, deflationary pressure will remain in 2003. CPI infl ation is forecast at 0.5%. Substantial FDI inflows will partly offset the decline in the current account surplus resulting from the deteri orating trade balance. The current account surplus will be 1.6% of GD P in 2003.尽管消费将会强劲，消费模式将会变得更多的消费在住房，汽车，旅游上。然而，服务业将会遭受SARS传播的影响。由于WTO贸易自由化带来的大量过剩的工业与廉价进口，通货紧缩压力在2003年将持续。CPI将膨胀0.5%。大量的外商直接投资流入将部分抵消由于贸易平衡恶化所带来的国际收支经常项目顺差的下降。国际收支经常项目顺差将占2003年GDP的1.6%。

If the world economy experiences a modest recovery, domestic pri vate sector investment gathers momentum, and rural incomes rise moder ately, then the economy will maintain its high growth in 2004, projec ted at 7.6%. With the deepening of economic reforms and industrial re structuring, excess capacity and supply should be gradually absorbed or transferred to emerging industries or sectors. Inflation will like ly be moderate at 1%. The current account id forecast at 1.5% of GDP.如果世界经济经历一个适当的恢复，国内私人部门投资聚集起动力，并且农村收入适当的提高，那么2004年经济将维持一个较高的增长，预计为7.6%。随着经济改革的深化和工业结构调整，过剩的产能和供给将逐渐地被新兴的行业和部门所吸引或转移。通货膨胀很有可能稳定在1%。国际收支经常项目顺差预计为G DP的1.5%。

In the next 5 years or so, the most important challenge foe the PRC’s policy makers is job creation, because, as the country continu es its economic restructuring and reform of SOEs, more workers will b e laid off. These workers will join about 8 million new labor market entrants and rural migrants in their search for jobs each year. It wi ll not be possible for the country to reduce poverty and maintain soc ial stability unless economic growth becomes more employment intensiv e, implying that the economy will need to shift from resource-extensi ve to labor-intensive growth.在今后大约五年时间，中国政策制定者面临的

最大挑战是创造就业机会，因为，随着国家经济改组和国企改革的继续，更多的工人下岗了。这些人将会和农民工一起加入每年大约新增的800万人的劳动力市场。国家不可能减少贫困和维持社会稳定，除非经济增长变得更加劳动力密集，那意味着经济需要从资源消耗型向劳动密集型转变。

The private sector is playing the key role in job creation, gene rating almost all new jobs between 1996 and 2002. to create a better enabling environment for the private sector, the Government needs to emphasize improving the legal framework and judicial system; honoring contracts; eliminating take products and protecting intellectual pro perty rights; converting legitimate fees and charges into taxes and a bolishing illegal and arbitrary fees; reducing administrative bureauc racy; removing local protectionism, barriers to interprovincial trade, and other factors preventing fair competition; and setting better ac counting and auditing standards and improving disclosure and enforcem ent.私人部门在创造就业机会方面扮演了关键角色，1996-2002年之间几乎所有新的工作岗位都由其创造产生。为了给私人部门创造更加宽松的环境，政府需要着重改进法律体制和司法制度；重合同守信用；消灭假货和保护知识产权；进行费改税并且消除不合法收费和乱收费；减少官僚机构；消除地方保护主义，省际间贸易障碍，以及其他妨碍公平竞争的因素；设定更好的会计和审计标准并且提高透明度和执法力度。

Income inequality within regions, the gap between rural and urban areas, as well as disparities between the eastern region and western region (where most of the poor live) have all widened. Addressing th e issues of poverty and inequality is essential to maintain broad-bas ed public support for the country’s reform program. More jobs need t o be created for the poor and economic growth promoted in rural areas and in interior provinces. This calls for strengthening policies and institutions, developing infrastructure, addressing land degradation, and supporting human resources development. Other measures required include strengthening social safety nets and the social security syst em, initially in urban areas and gradually in rural areas; improving poverty reduction programs with better targeting; encouraging poor pe ople to participate in decisions that affect them; and undertaking pr o-poor fiscal reform, particularly at the provincial and sub-provinci al levels.地区间收入不平等，农村和城市的差异，以及东西部地区间的差距（西部更多穷人）全都加大了。为了维持广大群众支持国家的改革事业，必须针对贫困和不平等采取相关措施。需要为穷人创造更多的工作机会并且促进农村地区和