英国文学简史重点汇总及简答题(完整)
英国文学简史
Conquests & Influences
A. Early period: The Roman conquest
(1) The Roman civilization 罗马文明
(2) Christianity 基督教
(3) Flouring (兴旺) of towns along military roads
B. The English conquest:
(1) Three tribes : the Angles, Saxons and Jutes
(2) Tribal society-feudalism 社会封建制度
C. Medieval period: The Danish and Norman conquest
(1) The French-Speaking Normans under Duke William came in 1066
(2) Establishment of feudalism 封建制度
(3) French words came to English
D. Anglo-Saxon Poetry (499-1066)
1.Anglo-Saxons: the ancestors of today’s Englishmen
2.The beginning of history of English literature
3.Features: Alliteration 头韵Rhymes metaphors押韵的比喻Understatements保守陈述
4.The only great work: Beowulf
【Beowulf】贝奥武夫( A folk song or poem )
1. A national epic (史诗般的作品) of the English people.
2. Pagan (异教徒的) poetry & No representative figure(没有代表性人物)
3. A folk legend brought to England by Anglo-Saxon from Northern Europe.
4. Praises man’s energy, intellect and love of life; and exposes the social vices. (社会的黑暗面)
Features of Beowulf: 1.Alliteration 2.Metaphors 隐喻3.Understatements
The significance of Beowulf
1.This glorious (辉煌的) epic presents us a vivid picture of the life of Anglo-Saxon people and highly praises the brave and courageous spirit of the fighting against the vices.
2.The epic reflects the situations the pagan tribalism (部落文化) and of the era of the Christianized (基督教化) feudal society.
3.The epic gives the vivid portrayal (写照) of a great national hero, strong and
courageous people and his kinfolk. (亲属)
Feudal England
1.The chief features of the society was division into two classes: Landlords and peasants. ( 地主和农民)
2.The peasants’ rising shook the feudal system in England to the root.
The Romance
1.The code of manners and morals of a knight is known as chivalry (骑士精神).
2.The English versions of romances were translated from French or Latin.
3.The romance of King Arthur is the most important for the history of English literature.
4.The romance’s culmination (顶点) in 《Sir Gawain and the Green Knight》国王与他的圆桌骑士(metrical romance )
5.The romance’s summing up in （托马斯·马洛里）Tho mas Malory’s《Le Morte D’Arthur》亚瑟王之死(in English prose散文)
6.《Le Morte D’ Arthur》is a collection of stories about King Arthur, and translated from French by Sir Thomas Malory.
【Langland】朗格兰
《Piers the plowman》农民皮尔斯written by William Langland shows the existence of English popular literature.
The English Ballads 英国民谣
Ballad：a story told in song, usually in four-line stanzas, with the second and fourth lines rhymed. （The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad.）
The various ballads of Robin Hood(罗宾汉) are gathered into a collection called: The Geste of Robin Hood 罗宾汉事迹
【Chaucer】乔叟（the founder of English poetry）
The three periods of C haucer’s career
1. Works translated from French, as《The Romaunt of the Rose》玫瑰传奇
2. Works adapted from the Italian, as《Troilus and Criseyde》特洛伊罗斯与克丽西达
3.《The Canterbury Tales》坎特伯雷故事集which is purely English
The Canterbury Tales’ Social Significance
1. A true-to-life picture of Chaucer’s time
2. Taking the stand of the rising bourgeoisie资产阶级, Chaucer affirms men’s rights to pursue their earthly happiness and opposes the dogma of asceticism preached by the church
3. As a forerunner先驱者of humanism, he pr aises man’s energy, intellect and love of life
4. Attack social evils of his time
Chaucer’s Language，now called Middle English, is vivid and exact. He is a master of world-pictures. His verse (诗) is among the smoothest in English. There are pages where, in spite of trifling (微不足道的) differences in spelling and grammar, hardly a single word will offer difficulties to a man of tolerable (可容忍的) reading
in modern English.
Chaucer’s Contribution
1. He introduced heroic couplet to English poetry, instead of the old Anglo-Saxon alliterative verse.
2. He was the first great poet who wrote in English language (Middle English) , thus establishing English as the literary language.
3. He did much in making the London dialect the foundation for modern English language.
名词解释
1．Alliteration is regular repetition of the same sounds---usu. Initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables----in Old and Middle English verse:’ Kindest to kinsmen and keenest for fame’ in Beowulf Alliteration is also known as ‘initial rhyme’or ‘head rhyme’.
2．Epic史诗is a long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.
3．Ballad : a story told in song, usually in four-line stanzas, with the second and fourth lines rhymed.
4．Heroic Couplet：A traditional form for English poetry: it reflects to rhymed iambic pentameter lines in pairs. Use of the heroic couplet was first pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales.
Part two：Old English in Transition (P27)
1.The New Monarchy 新君主制（the Tudor dynasty, a centralized monarchy 都铎王
朝：君主集中制）
2.The Reformation(the Protestant Reformation 新教改革；宗教文化精神改革)
3. The English Bible：Then appeared the Authorized Version, which was made in 1611 under the auspices of James Ⅰ and so was sometimes called the King James Bible. (The result is a monument (不朽的作品) of English language and English literature.)
3. The Enclosure Movement (圈地运动)
4. The Renaissance (文艺复兴) and Humanism （人道主义）
(1). The Renaissance: an intellectual movement sprang first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe.
(2). People had a thirsting curiosity好奇心for the classical literature.
(3) People showed the keen interest in the activities of humanity.
(4). People ceased to look upon themselves as living only for God and a future world.
5. Humanism is the essence（本质）of the Renaissance.
A. The Renaissance, therefore, is a history period in which the Europe humanist thinkers and scholars tried to get rid of those old feudalistic ideas in Medieval Europe, to introduce new ideas that express the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, and to recover the purity of the early church from the corruption of the Roman catholic church.
B. Humanism
(1).Humanism emphasized the dignity and potential of the individual and the
worth of life in this world.
(2) .Man is the measure of all things.
(3) .Man has ability to perfect themselves, to develop the individual.
(4) .Man should enjoy the present life.
【Thomas More】托马斯·莫尔
1.《Utopia》is More’s masterpiece, written in the form of a conversation （dialogue）between More and Hythloday, a returned voyager (航海者).
2. The name ‘Utopia’ comes from two Greek words meaning ‘no place’ and was adopted by More as the name of his ideal commonwealth.
The Flowering of English Literature （P38
Drama and Prose 散文)
【Sir Philip Sidney】西德尼
Sir Philip Sidney is well-known as a poet and critic of poetry.
His collection of love sonnets (十四行诗),《Astrophel and Stella》1591爱星者与星星, His《Apology for Poetry》为诗辩护is one of the earliest English literary essays. It
“the school of abuse.”【Edmund Spenser】斯宾塞( The Poet’s Poet of the period )
The Shepheardes Calendar 《牧羊人日历》1579
Spenser’s greatest work, The Faerie Queene 《荣光女王》/《仙后》
It is an allegorical work（寓言作品）dedicated to Queen Elizabeth Ⅰ.
Spenserian stanza 斯宾塞诗节：A nine-line stanza of 8 lines in iambic pentameter plus an iambic hexameter 6-foot line. 一共九行诗，前八行行扬格五步音，第九行抑格六步音（abab baba c）
Spenser’s position in English literature : Spenser has held his position as a model of poetical art among the Renaissance English poets, and his influence can be
traced in the works of Milton, Shelley and Keats.
【Francis Bacon】培根（famous for his Essays；Of Studies随笔集）The founder of English materialist philosophy. 唯物主义哲学
1)his inductive method of reasoning and learning(归纳推理法) proved to be seminal
and critically important to the development of modern science and the progress of humankind
2)his thought system represented the beginnings of materialism in English
philosophy（英国唯物主义哲学）
Bacon was the founder of modern science in England.
The English version of his part forms his《Advancement of Learning》学问的发展.Then followed his《New Instrument》新工具论.
A wide variety of subjects: love, truth, friendship, studies, youth and many others.
作品文风：Clearness, brevity and force
English Drama : the miracles（神迹剧）—the morality（道德剧）—the interlude （幕间剧）—the classical drama
There was a group of so-called “university wits”大学才子（Lyly，Peele，Marlowe，Greene，Lodge and Nash）who wrote for the stage of the time.
【Marlowe】马洛：the most gifted of the “university wits”
works:
《Tamburlaine》帖木耳大帝
《The Jew of Malta》马耳他岛的犹太人
《Doctor Faustus》浮士德博士（Marlowe’s masterpiece）
Marlowe was the greatest of the pioneers（拓荒者）of English drama.
Marlowe first made blank verse（留白：对莎士比亚影响重大）the principal medium of English drama.
P55【William Shakespeare】Drama:37
四大悲剧Great tragedies:《》麦克白《King Lear》李尔王《Othello》奥赛罗
四大喜剧Great comedies: 《A Midsummer Night’s Dream》仲夏夜之梦《The Merchant of Venice》威尼斯商人(“grave comedy”) 《As You Like It》皆大欢喜《Twelfth Night》第十二夜In Sonnet 18, he eulogizes the power of artistic creation
Blank verse is the principal form of his dramas
Shakespeare’s sonnets, 154 in total, were first published as a collection in 1609 The Shakespearean or English sonnet rhymed “abab cdcd efef gg”
Themes: love、Beauty、mortality、the effects of time
Style: grace in form, depth in thought, and vivacity in tone
Features of Shakespeare’s Drama:
(1)Shakespeare is one of the founders of realism in world literature.
(2)Shakespeare was a great master of the English language.
(3)Shakespeare was skilled in many poetic forms：the song, the sonnet, the couple, and the dramatic blank verse.
(4)Shakespeare’s dramatic creation often used the method of adaptation.
(5)Shakespeare’s long experience with the stage and his intimate knowledge of dramatic art thus acquired make him a master hand for playwriting.
评价：1.Shakespeare has been universally acknowledged to be the summit of the English Renaissance, and one of the greatest playwright or poet in the whole world.
2.All English writers of any importance cannot escape from Shakespeare’s
influence.(影响单一：文艺复兴)
【Ben Jonson】本·琼森（他的去世标志着伊丽莎白时代的结束）
?he was the last great Elizabethan and probably the first poet laureate（桂冠诗人）
and the first literary dictator（文学泰斗）in English history.
Roman Tragedies:
Sejanus 《席阶纳斯》
Cateline 《克蒂琳》
Comedies:
Every Man in His Humor《个性互异》
V olpone, or the Fox 《福尔彭奈，或狐狸》
The Alchemist 《炼金术士》
Bartholomew Fair 《巴梭罗缪市集》
? his reputation as a playwright was established by the success of his first comedy,
Every Man in His Humour《个性互异》
Jonson’s comedies are “comedies of humours”幽默的喜剧（behaviour, thoughts and manner of speech）
?In 1616 he published his Works《作品》, the complete collection of his poetry
?bring the classic form of the tree unities——unity of action, unity of time, and
unity of place——back to the stage（把古典的三一原则——情节一致，时间一致和地点一致带回舞台）
?the heroic couplet（英雄双韵体）that he used in the poem was to become a
tyrannical bogue in the next century, and his emphasis on “nature” the basic
principle in 18th century literary criticism
【King James’ Bible】(最终形成于3世纪初)
1)consists of 2 parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament旧约和新约
2)The Old Testament: history and religious beliefs of the Jews
3)The New Testament: the life of Jesus Christ and the birth and the growth of the
Christian faith (创世)
4）the authorized bible came into being in 1611
【The 17th Century】
?basic features of the literature of the period:
Seek certainty and intellectual harmony on the one hand, and to address the
question of values through violence and sexuality
?The main literary form of the early 17th century was poetry.
P116【John Donne】约翰邓恩Metaphysical Poetry/Poe t 玄学派诗歌/诗人
Basic features: wit or conceit巧智&奇思妙喻
The Flea《跳蚤》
Valediction: Forbidden Mourning 《告别》
The novelty consists in the comparison of two separate lovers to the legs of a
compass圆规
【John Milton】约翰弥尔顿
The third greatest English poet after Chaucer and Shakespeare, and the greatest to come out of the 17th century.
His life can be roughly divided into three phrases:
1）The early phase of reading and lyric writing 抒情
2）The middle phrase of service in the Puritan Revolution （清教）and
pamphleteering（小册子）for it
3）The last phrase of epic writing史诗( the greatest)
作品：
Two influential writings in Latin:
In Denfense of the British People《为英国人民辩护》
More in Defense of the British People《再为英国人民辩护》
Paradise Lost《失乐园》：religious work, blank verse；One notable feature of the epic is evident ambiguity in the poet’s attitude toward God, the devil, and man.
Samson Agonistes《力士参孙》：Verse drama, can be seen as objectifying（物化）the poet’s own unflinching spirit ；Samson is Milton.
Lycidas《利西达斯》
【John Dryden】约翰德莱顿：第一位新古典主义作家
?He was notorious for his frequent face-about in face of the changing political
climate of his day.
?In historical retrospect, Dryden is remembered for 2 things he did admirably
well for his country’s literature.
His successful effort to prune the Elizabethan language of its formless exuberance and turn it into a cool, lucid, plain and natural medium for English writing.
He was the first Neoclassic writer in English literary history.第一位新古典主义作家
He made the heroic couplet(英雄双韵体)almost the one poetic medium acceptable for poetry.
English literary criticism英语文学批评：The father of English criticism
?H is tragedy All for Love deals with the same story as William Shakespeare’s
Antony and Cleopatra.
【John Bunyan】约翰班扬
?When he was in prison he wrote--The Pilgrim’s Progress.《天路历程》is a
religious allegory. 宗教寓言
The Celestial City in The Pilgrim’s Progress is the vision of an ideal happy society dreamed by a poor tinker in the 17th century, through a veil of religious mist.
One of the most remarkable passages is that in which Vanity Fair.名利场
It is popular speech ennobled by the solemn dignity and simplicity of the language of the English Bible. 《天路历程》被称为“英国人的圣经”
Chapter 6
P127【Neo-classicism】新古典主义：18世纪中期到19世纪盛行
【Alexander Pope】亚历山大蒲柏
Essay on Criticism《论批评》
The Rape Of the Lock 《卷发遇劫记》：Mock epic讽刺史诗: of five cantos about “a Homeric struggle of the tea cups”
Essay on Men《人论》
An Epistle to Dr.Arbuthnot《致阿布斯诺医生书》
The Dunciad《群愚史诗》
P178【Richard Brinsley Sheridan】谢立丹：He is considered to be the only important English dramatist of the 18th century.
作品：
The Rivals《情敌》
The School for Scandal《造谣学校》:a great comedy of manners
a great comedy of manners (风俗喜剧)
【Romanticism】浪漫主义
P195【William Blake】布莱克pre-romantic writer
His major works, Songs of Innocence《天真之歌》and Songs of Experience《经验之歌》are his voluminous prophetic and mystical writings.
天真：The Little Black Boy and The Chimney Sweeper扫烟囱的孩子
经验：A Little Boy Lost and The Tiger 老虎
【Robert Burns】罗伯特·彭斯pre-romantic writer （regard as the national of
Scotland）
His Poems : Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect 《苏格兰方言诗集》
Numerous are Burn’s songs of love and friendship ：A Red, Red Rose
Main Works：
“John Anderson, my Jo ”约翰.安德生，我的爱人
The Tree of Liberty 自由树
A Red Red Rose一朵红红的玫瑰
Auld Lang Syne 友谊地久天长
My Heart's in the Highland 我的心在高原
P138【Jonathan Swift】乔纳森斯威夫特
1) one of the realist writers.
2) expresses democratic ideas in his works.
3 ) one of the greatest masters of English prose.
The Battle of the Books《书战》
A Tale of a Tub 《一只木桶的故事》, one of his greatest satires Pamphlets: The Drapier’s Letters 《布商来信》
A Modest Proposal 《一个温和的建议》
Gulliver’s T ravels 《格列夫游记》：the novel is a bitter satire and harsh criticism of all aspects in the then English and European life philosophically, socially, politically, scientifically, religiously, and morally.
Swift: a man intensively critical of his fault, and believing in progress and the goodness of human nature and all the 18th century values.
Swif t is one of the greatest masters of English prose. His language is simple, clear and vigorous.
P146【Daniel Defoe】丹尼尔·笛福Pamphleteer 政治宣传册作家
Defoe was a kind of jack-of –all-trades. 多才多艺
He was a radical nonconformist (不信奉国教的人) in religion.
His works：Robinson Crusoe《鲁滨孙漂流记》, Captain Singleton , Moll Flanders and Colonel Jacque (adventure)
P153【Samuel Richardson】查理孙epistolary novel 书信体小说
Pamela《帕梅拉》became a “best-seller” of the day .
Clarissa is the best of Richardson’s novel.
His main achievement as a novelist lies in his technique to show characters as personalities, thinking and feeling for themselves.
P156【Henry Fielding】亨利菲尔丁“Father of the English realistic novel”
He was the first to give the modern novel its structure and genre (style). Joseph Andrews 《约瑟夫安德鲁斯》
The History of Jonathan Wild the Great《伟大的乔纳森·王尔德》
Tom Jones the Founding《弃儿汤姆琼斯》
H e n r y F i e l d i n g’s m e t h o d o f r e l a t i n g a s t o r y i s t e l l i n g t h e s t o r y d i r e c t l y b y t h e
a u t h o r.S a t i r e a
b o u n d s e v e r y w h e r e i n h i s w o r k.Fielding is a master of style. His style is easy, smooth and familiar, but extremely vivid and vigorous.
P128【Addison and Steele】
The two names linked together because of their life-long friendship and the partnership in literary career.
Steele and The Tatler闲谈者
Addison and The Spectator旁观者
1)They give a true picture of the social life of England in the 18th century. In
their hands, English essay has completely established itself as a literature genre.
2)Literary Term: Free Essay
P265【Scott】司各特
W a l t e r S c o t t was a prolific Scottish historical novelist and poet popular throughout Europe during his time. Many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature.
O n t h e h i s t o r y o f S c o t l a n d
Waverley
Old Mortality
Rob Roy
The Heart of Midlothian
O n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y
Ivanhoe
O n t h e h i s t o r y o f F r a n c e a n d o t h e r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s
Quentin Durward
P244【Keats】济慈
His aesthetic theory of “negative capability”
Main Works：
Poems，《诗集》，his first book.
Five long poems
Endymion,《恩底弥翁》his first long poem
Isabella《伊莎贝拉》The Pot of Basil芳香的草本植物
The Eve of St. Agnes《圣·爱格尼斯节前夕》
Lamia 《莱米亚》
Hyperion 《赫坡里昂》Ode on a Grecian Urn 希腊古瓮颂
Ode To A Nightingale 夜莺颂
Ode to Autumn 秋颂
Ode on Melancholy 忧郁颂
Ode to Psyche 心灵颂
Ode on Indolence 懒惰颂
【Shelley】雪莱
Shelley is one of the greatest English lyrical poets. He expresses his love for freedom and his hatred towards tyranny. Shelley is one of the most important dramatists of English Romanticism. His greatest achievement in theater lies in his poetic drama Prometheus Unbound.
His Works：
Ode to the West Wind西风颂
To a Skylark云雀颂
The Cloud云
Prometheus Unbound 《解放了的普罗米修斯》
Queen Mab 麦布女王
The Masque of Anarchy 《专治魔王的化装游行》
The Necessity of Atheism《无神论的重要性》
A Defence of Poetry《诗辩》
【Byron】拜伦
Main Works：
Don Juan（Byron’s masterpiece）《唐?璜》
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage《恰尔德?哈罗德游记》
When We Two Parted 《昔日依依别》
She walks in Beauty《她在美中行》
Poetic Drama:
Manfred
Cain
The Two Foscari
Oriental Tales：The Giaour
The Corsair
Lara
B y r o n i c H e r o：a proud revolutionary figure of noble origin, rising single handed against any kind of tyrannic rules in government or religion or moral society with unconquerable wills and inexhaustible energies.
His hero is known as “Byronic Hero”, a proud, mysterious rebel figure of noble origin. . For such a hero, the conflict is usually one of rebellious individual against outworn social systems and conventions.
【Coleridge】柯勒律治
In 1797 he began his friendship with Wordsworth. In 1798 they published The Lyrical Ballads.
Demonic poems神祗诗
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner《古舟子吟》
Kubla Khan 《忽必烈汗》
Christabel
Conversational poems 对话诗
Frost at Morning
Dejection: An Ode
Essays
Biographia Literaria 文学传记
Lectures on Shakespeare.
Coleridge is a great Romantic poet. His poetic imagination is unique. He is fond of unusual and supernatural things.
【William Wordsworth】威廉·华兹华斯
1)L y r i c a l B a l l a d s《抒情歌谣集》f o l l o w e d b y“T h e P r e f a c e t o t h e L y r i c a l
B a l l a d s”—s e r v e d a s t h e m a n i f e s t o o f t h e E n g l i s h R o m a n t i c M o v e m e n t i n p o e t r y.
2)f a m o u s s h o r t p o e m s：
A b o u t n a t u r e：“I w o n d e r e d L o n e l y a s a C l o u d”“独自漫游似浮云”，o r“T h e
D a f f o d i l s”“咏水仙”“I n t i m a t i o n o f I m m o r t a l i t y”“不朽颂”
【George Eliot】(Victorian era)
She is the author of seven novels, including Adam Bede, The Mill on the Floss , Silas Marner , Middlemarch , and Daniel Deronda , most of them
set in provincial England and known for their realism and psychological
insight.
【Thackeray】
1.Thackeray was a representative of critical realists of the 19th century England
2.Thackeray is a satirist. His satire is caustic(刻薄的，尖锐的) and his
humor subtle(精妙的).
3.Thackeray is a moralist. His aim is to produce a moral impression in all his
novels.
1) The Book of Snobs《势利人脸谱》
2) Vanity Fair《名利场》(A Novel Without a Hero)
3) The History of Pendennis《彭登尼斯》
4) The Newcomes《纽克姆一家》
5) The History of Henny Esmond《亨利?埃斯蒙德》
6) The Virginians《弗吉尼亚人》
P277【Dickens】
The Pickwick Papers《匹克威克先生外传》
Oliver Twist《奥列佛?特维斯特》：Fagin
Nicholas Nickleby《尼古拉斯?尼克尔贝》
The Old Curiosity Shop《老古玩店》
Barnaby Rudge《巴纳比?拉奇》
American Notes《游美札记》
Martin Chuzzlewit《马丁?朱什尔维特》
A Christmas Carol《圣诞欢歌》
Dombey and Son《董贝父子》
David Copperfield《大卫?科波菲尔》
Bleak House《荒凉山庄》
Hard Times《艰难时事》
Little Dorrit《小杜丽》
A Tale of Two Cities《双城记》(Dickens takes the French Revolution as the subject of his novel, and the “two cities” are Paris and London in the time of that revolution) Great Expectations《远大前程》
Our Mutual Friend《我们共同的朋友》
Dickens’ novels offer a most complete and realistic picture of the English bourgeois society of his age. Dickens is a great humorist. His novels are full of humor and laughter.
【Charlotte Bronte】
Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte’s masterpiece, tells the story of an orphan girl.
S h i r l e y,《舍丽》
V i l l e t t e,《维莱特》
【Emily Bronte】
Emily Bronte published only one novel, Wuthering Heights .
【Jane Austen】简?奥斯丁
Works：
Sense and Sensibility《理智与情感》
Pride and Prejudice
Mansfield Park
Emma
Northanger Abbey
Persuasion
Romanticism has five prominent characteristics:
1. The Romantic Movement was a strong reaction and protest against the bondage of rule and custom, which generally tend to fetter the free human spirit.
2. Romanticism returned to nature and to plain humanity for its material.
3. It is marked by renewed interest in medieval ideals and literature.
4. Romanticism was marked by intense human sympathy, an understanding of the human heart. The sympathy for the poor, and the cry against oppression grew stronger.
5. The Romantic Movement was the expression of individual genius rather than of established rules.
A Comparison Between Byron, Shelley, Keats：
1. Under the influence of the ideas behind the revolutions in America,
especially in France, all three looked at the world in a new and striking way.
Their poetry reflected discontent against outworn tradition and conditions.
But their attitudes, resulted from frustrations of their efforts in revolting
against the established code and the ugliness of society, are different. Byron turned somewhat pessimistic, even cynical; Keats showed certain aloofness from the interests of worldly life and seemed seeking refuge in an idealistic world of illusions and dreams; only Shelley never lost his optimism. All his life he cherished the hope for a better world.
2.All of their poetry excels in imagery. In Byron’s poems, the image
largely created through allusions; in Keats’s poems they are created
chiefly through elaborate and decorative description of nature, showing
the beauty of line, color, shape, odor and taste; in Shelley’s the
exquisiteness of figurative language and symbolism extols 赞美the
visionary scenes, while the spontaneous flow from the poet’s heart is
full of youthful freshness and enthusiasm.
3. Their poetry has a powerful musical effect. The stirring rhythms of Byron’s poems grip and hold the reader like martial 战争的music; in Keats’s it is touching melody; Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind is a wild symphony交响乐, and his many other poems are like some ethereal 天上的music, seemly descending from some heavenly place, appealing profoundly to the heart.
4.Byron employs a manly and racy有活力的style, Shelley’s poetry shows excellence of artistry and the unification of ideas and form; in many aspects, Keats’s the best workman of t hem all. His poetry shows the mastery of artistic form, and the harmony of word and thoughts shows more perfection of artistic finish 完美.
Lake Poets 湖畔派诗人
In English literature Lake Poets refer to such romantic poets as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey who lived in the Lake District. They came to be known as the Lake School or “Lakers”.
18～19世纪的英国浪漫主义诗歌流派。主要成员有华兹华斯、柯尔律治和骚塞。由于他们三人曾一同隐居于英国西北部的昆布兰湖区，先后在格拉斯米尔和文德美尔两个湖畔居住，以诗赞美湖光山色，所以有“湖畔派诗人”之称。
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f R o m a n t i c i s m
1.The spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings
2.The creation of a world of imagination
3.The return to nature for material
4.Sympathy with the humble and glorification of the commonplace
5.Emphasis upon the expression of individual genius
6.The return to Milton and the Elizabethans for literary models
7.The interest in old stories and medieval romances
8. A sense of melancholy and loneliness
9The rebellious spirit
What is Romanticism?
English Romanticism begins in 1798 with the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge’s The Lyrical Ballads and ends in 1832 with Walter Scott’s death.
The romanticists express a negative attitude towards the existing social or political conditions. They place the individual at the center of art, as can be seen from Lord Byron’s Byronic He ro. The key words of English Romanticism are n a t u r e a n d i m a g i n a t i o n.English Romantic tend to be nationalistic, defending the greatest English writers. They argue that poetry should be free from all rules
F e a t u r e s o f R o m a n t i c i s m
R o m a n t i c i s m was characterized by a strong protest against the bondage of neoclassicism, which emphasized reason, order and elegant wit. Instead, romanticism gave primary concern to passion, emotion, and natural beauty. The writings of romanticists are filled with strong-willed heroes or even titanic images, formidable events and tragic situations, powerful conflicting passions. The English Romantic Period is an age of poetry.
工程热力学简答题
1.何谓状态何谓平衡状态何为稳定状态 状态：热力学系统所处的宏观状况 平衡状态：在不受外界影响的条件下，系统的状态不随时间而变化 稳定状态：系统内各点参数不随时间而变化 2.说明状态参数的性质。 (1)状态参数是状态的函数。对应一定的状态。状态参数都有唯一确定的数位。 (2)状态参数的变化仅与初、终状态有关，而与状态变化的途径无关。当系统经历一系列状态变化而恢复到初态时。其状态参数的变化为零，即它的循环积分为零 (3)状态参数的数学特征为点函数，它的微分是全微分。 3.何谓热力过程 热力学状态变化的历程 4.何谓准静态过程实现准静态过程的条件是什么 准静态过程：热力学系统经历一系列平衡状态，每次状态变化时都无限小的偏离平衡状态。 条件：状态变化无限小，过程进行无限慢。 5.非准静态过程中，系统的容积变化功可否表示为 ?=-21 2 1 d v p w 为什么 不可以。在非准静态过程中pv的关系不确定，没有函数上的联系。 6.何谓可逆过程 经历一个热力学过程后，热力学系统逆向沿原过程逆向进行，系统和有关的外界都返回到原来的初始状态，而不引起其他的变化。 7.何谓热力循环 系统由初始状态出发，经过一系列中间状态后重新回到初始状态所完成的一个封闭式的热力过程称为热力循环。 8.何谓正循环，说明其循环特征。 在状态参数坐标图上，过程按照顺时针循环的为正循环，其目的是利用热产生机械功，动力循环，顺时针，循环净功为正。 9.何谓逆循环，说明其循环特征。 在状态参数坐标图上，过程按照逆时针循环的为逆循环，其目的是付出一定代价使热量从低温区传向高温区，制冷循环，逆时针，循环净功为负。 10.何谓热量何谓功量 热量：仅仅由于温度不同，热力学系统与外界之间通过边界所传递的能量 功量：热力学系统和外界间通过边界而传递的能量，且其全部效果可表现为举起重物。 11.热量和功量有什么相同的特征两者的区别是什么 相同特征：都是系统与外界间通过边界传递的能量，都是过程量，瞬时量。
英美文学考试复习点重点整理
1.现实主义、批判现实主义（代表人物、作品，以及每部作品讲了什么故事）P276—比如《匹克威克外传》主要讲什么？P281 《双城记》主要讲什么？P298 《大卫科波菲尔》主要讲什么？P292 2.其中自传体形式的作品有哪些？ 3.傲慢与偏见的第一个名字：first impression(Pride and prejudice现) 4.三姐妹指的是？ 5.19世纪有名小说名利场副标题：“A Novel Without a Hero”作者：William Makepeace Thackeray P303 6.18th浪漫主义作家、代表作P211 反对什么,反抗什么思想？ 7.Pop代表作有哪些？P134 剪发记？ 8.玄学诗派有哪些人物组成？Leading Feature? P116 9.乌托邦is written in form of ?P33 10.Universal Wicks大学才子是谁？P50 11.中世纪文学流行的是? 主题特征骑马精神P8？ 12.最著名作家：乔叟P19 13.对于三次征服的概念（1）罗马征服P1 （2）英国人征服P2（3）诺曼征服P5 14.人民大宪章什么时候出现？时间：1837年
1.John Milton He was born in London in 1608. He is a master of the blank verse, and a great stylist. And he is famous for his grand style.But his style is never exactly natural. He devoted almost twenty years of his best life to the fight for political, religious and personal liberty as a writer. His famous works are Paradise lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes. 2.Romance Romance was the most prevailing kind of literature of the upper class in feudal England in the Medieval Ages. It is a long composition in verse or in prose which describes the life and chivalric adventures of a noble hero. The central character of romances is the knight, a man of noble birth skilled in the use of weapon. The theme of loyalty to king and lord was repeatedly emphasized in romances. 3.the Enlightenment It is the philosophical and artistic movement growing out of the Renaissance and continuing until the nineteenth century. It was an optimistic belief that humanity could improve itself by applying logic and reasons to all things. Typically, these enlightenment writers would use satire to ridicule what they felt illogical errors in government, social
中外教育史 论述题整理
中外教育史论述题整理 1、中国儒学的发展历程及其对教育的影响 一、儒学的思想体系发展 1、春秋时期： 是儒学的初创时期。孔子初创了儒学体系，其思想体系的核心是“仁”，主张以爱人之心调节与和谐人际关系。维护周朝的“礼”，主张贵贱有序。孔子的主观愿望是通过伦理道德来规范人，从而回到西周尊卑、长幼有序的奴隶制社会。他提出的“仁”是儒学思想的创新，奠定了古代教育思想的基础，对教育产生了深远影响；借由“礼”和“仁”的关系——克己复礼为仁，巩固窃位之后的封建社会的统治地位。 2、战国时期： 孟子沿着“性善论”的方向发展完善了以德治国的王道政治思想体系。基于“性善论”的观点，他认为教育的作用是扩充善性，致良知；教育的目的是明人伦。孟子建构的一个比较完整的唯心主义的思想体系使孔子开创的儒学朝着系统化、伦理化方向迈进了一大步。与之并列的荀子沿着“性恶论”的方向发展完善了王道与霸道相结合的政治思想体系。基于“性恶论”的观点，他认为教育的作用是化性起伪；教育的目的是培养推行礼法的贤能之士，以培养大儒作为理想目标；教育内容上应重视以儒家经典为内容的文化知识传授。他的学说反映了儒法合流的趋势，丰富了儒家政治学说，为封建统治阶级提供了一套比较完备的统治方法，也促进了教育理论的发展。 3、汉代： 董仲舒倡导的“天人感应”的学说，为原始儒学提供了一层神秘化的外衣，并对原始伦理道德规范进行了概括提炼，提出了封建宗教道德规范——“三纲五常”，作为建立“法度”，化民为俗的根本，从而在文化政策上为后来以儒为宗的教育模式提供了蓝本。 4、北宋： 以朱熹为代表的程朱理学为儒学寻找到了本体论的依据，就是“存天理、灭人欲”。以儒家为主体，融合了佛、道的新儒学——理学思想体系使儒学成为封建社会后期的统治思想。 二、儒学的社会地位变化 二、儒学对教育的影响 1、不同朝代儒学的官定版本是这个朝代的教育内容，直接影响着当时的教育内容。 每个朝代都有儒学官定的版本，如唐代的《五经正义》，宋代的《十三经正义》（王安石变法时颁布的《三经新义》）等。这意味着儒学的内容要适应不同朝代的统治需要作出调整，这也是儒学本身发展的表现。而不同朝代儒学的官定版本既强化了儒学的思想地位，同时规范了这个朝代对儒学内容方面的改造，直接使这个朝代的教育内容与其他朝代不同。 2、不同朝代儒学的地位确认影响着当时的文教政策。
工程热力学简答题汇总汇编
工程热力学简答题汇 总
1热力系统：被人为分割出来作为热力学分析对象的有限物质系统。 开口系统：热力系统和外界不仅有能量交换而且有物质交换。 闭口系统：热力系统和外界只有能量交换而无物质交换。 孤立系统：热力系统和外界即无能量交换又无物质交换。 2平衡状态：一个热力系统如果在受外界影响的条件下系统的状态能够始终保持不变，则系统的这种状态叫平衡状态。 准平衡过程：若过程进行的相对缓慢，工质在被平衡破坏后自动回复平衡的时间，即所谓弛豫时间又很短，工质有足够的时间来恢复平衡，随时都不致显著偏离平衡状态，那么这样的过程就叫做准平衡过程。 可逆过程：当完成了某一过程之后，如果有可能使工质沿相同的路径逆行而回复到原来状态，并且相互作用中所涉及到的外界亦回复到原来状态而不留下任何改变。 3汽化潜热：即温度不变时，单位质量的某种液体物质在汽化过程中所吸收的热量。 4比热的定义和单位：1kg物质温度升高1k所需热量称为质量热容，又称比热容，单位为 J/(kg·K)，用c表示，其定义式为c=δq/dT或c=δq/dt。 5湿空气的露点：露点是在一定的pv下（指不与水或湿物料相接触的情况），未饱和湿空气冷却达到饱和湿空气，即将结出露珠时的温度，可用湿度计或露点仪 测量，测的td相当于测定了 pv。 6平衡状态与稳定状态有何区 别和联系，平衡状态与均匀状 态有何区别和联系? 答：“平衡状态”与“稳定状态” 的概念均指系统的状态不随时 间而变化，这是它们的共同 点；但平衡状态要求的是在没 有外界作用下保持不变；而平 衡状态则一般指在外界作用下 保持不变，这是它们的区别所 在。 7卡诺定理：定理一：在相同 温度的高温热源和相同温度的 低温热源之间工作的一切可逆 循环，其热效率都相等，与可 逆循环的种类无关，与采用哪 一种工质也无关。 定理二：在温度同为T1的热 源和同为T2的冷源间工作的 一切不可逆循环，其热效率必 小于可逆循环。 推论一：在两个热源间工作的 一切可逆循环，他们的热效率 都相同，与工质的性质无关， 只决定于热源和冷源的温度， 热效率都可以表示为ηc=1— T2/T1 推论二：温度界限相同，但具 有两个以上热源的可逆循环， 其热效率低于卡诺循环 推论三：不可逆循环的热效率 必定小于同样条件下的可逆循 环 8气体在喷管中流动，欲加速 处于超音速区域的气流，应采 取什么形式的喷管，为什么： 因为Ma>1超声速流动，加速 dA>0气流截面扩张，喷管截面 形状与气流截面形状相符合， 才能保证气流在喷管中充分膨 胀，达到理想加速度过程，采 用渐扩喷管。 9压气机，实际过程与理想过 程的关系，在压气机采取多级 压缩和级间冷却有什么好处： 每级压气机所需功相等，这样 有利于压气机曲轴平衡。每个 汽缸气体压缩后达到的最高温 度相同，这样每个汽缸的温度 条件相同。每级向外排出的热 量相等，而且每级的中间冷却 器向外排除的热量也相等。 （避免压缩因比压太高而影响 容积效率，有利于气体压缩以 等温压缩进行，对容积效率的 提高也有利） 10逆向循环：把热量从低温热 源传给高温热源。 11绝热节流：在节流过程中， 流体与外界没有热量交换就称 绝热节流。 14简述功和热量的区别与联 系：都是过程量，作功有宏观 移动，传热无宏观移动，作功 有能量转化，传热无能量转 化，功变热无条件，热变功有 条件。 12喷管的形状选择与哪些因素 有关？背压对喷管性能有何 影响？温度有何变化规律和 影响？进口截面参数（滞止 压力P0）和背压（P b）；Pb ≥Pcr选渐缩喷管，Pb＜Pcr 选缩放喷管。 13蒸汽压缩式制冷和空气压缩式制 冷的联系与区别。蒸汽压缩式制冷 的优点，装置上的区别及原因。 答：都是利用压缩气体来制冷，制 冷装置不用，使用的气体不同，前 者使用的是低沸点的水蒸气，后者 使用的是空气。蒸汽压缩式制冷的 优点：1，更接近于同温限的逆向卡 诺循环，提高了经济性；2，单位质 量工质制冷量较大。为了简化设 备，提高装置运行的可靠性，实际 应用的蒸汽压缩制冷循环常采用节 流阀代替膨胀机。 14湿空气温度与吸湿能力的关系 湿含量一定时，温度升高，空气中 水蒸气密度变大，吸湿能力下降 15朗肯循环在T-S图上表示 1-2，绝热膨胀做功 2-3，冷却放热，冷凝的饱和水 3-4，在水泵里绝热压缩 4-1，加热，汽化 循环吸热量q1=h1-h4；循环放热量 q2=h2-h3 对外做功w1=h1-h2；消耗功w2=h4- h3 热效率ηt=Wnet/q1=(h1-h2)-(h4- h3)/h1-h4 16R和Rg的意义及关系：Rg是气体 常数，仅与气体种类有关而与气体 的状态无关；R是摩尔气体常数，不 仅与气体状态无关，也与气体的种 类无关，R=8.3145J(mol·K)。若气 体的摩尔质量为M，则R=MRg 17热量（可用能）的概念：在温 度为T0的环境条件下，系统（T＞ T0）所提供的热量中可转化为有用 功的最大值是热量，用EX，Q表 示。 18热力学第二定律的表述 仅供学习与交流，如有侵权请联系网站删除谢谢2
英国文学简史问答题期末考试复习提纲教学教材
1. How much do you know about the English literature in the Romantic Age? ①The Romantic Age in England was like the Elizabethan Age, distinctively an age of poetry. It was regarded as the second great age in English literary history; for poetry is the highest form of literary expression, and seems to have been most in harmony with the noblest powers of the English genius. The glory of the age is in the poetry of Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelly, Keats, Moore, and Southey； ②Women novelists appeared in this age. It was during this period that women assumed for the first time, an important place in English literature. Mrs. Anne Radcliff was one of the most successful writers of the school of exaggerated romance. Jane Austen offered us her charming descriptions of everyday life in her enduring work her masterpiece----Pride and Prejudice; ③The greatest historical novelist Walter Scott also appeared in this period. His historical novels combine a romantic atmosphere with a realistic description of historical background and common people life. Scott marked the transition from romanticism to the period of realism which followed it; ④Romantic prose was represented by Lamb, Hazlitt, De Quincey and Hume. Lamb was the best essayist, whose familiar essays are very famous. 3.What are the major features of Dickens’ novels? ①Dickens’ novels offer a most complete and realistic picture of the English bourgeois society of his age. His novels tell much of the unhappy experiences of his own childhood. They reflect the protest of the people against capitalist exploitation, and criticize the vices of capitalist society. ② The success of Dickens novels also lies in his character-portrayal. Not only are the major characters in his novels very carefully delineated and given distinctive individual characteristics but also his minor figures create in the readers’ mind strong impressions of their personalities. Some of Dickens’characters are really such “typical characters under typical circumstances”that they become proverbial or are representative of a whole group of similar persons. ③Dickens is a great humorist and satirist. His novels are full of humor and satire ④Dickens is not especially known for the construction of plot in his novels. There is in his novels often more than one minor thread of story beside the major one, and these threads are generally very loosely woven together. He seems to love a complicated and involved plot. ⑤In almost every one of Dickens’ novels there is a happy ending, which points to the author’s optimism which is an admirable thing for a critical realist because that means his still has his hopes after seeing the gloomy world all around him and one hand, and as a petty-bourgeois intellectual, could not overstep the limits of his class on the other hand. ⑥Another feature in Dickens’novels is his adroit use of language. On the whole Dickens has a richness of expressions and generally succeeds in using the right words and phrases at the right moments for the right characters to attain the right effects. 12. What are the characteristics of Dickens’ novels?(同第三题)
外国教育史简答论述题教案资料
第一章 古儒学校19 古代埃及的“书吏学校”14 古代埃及的“寺庙学校”14 简述婆罗门教育的内容形式18 怎样正确理解“教育起源问题”1 第二章 智者派 43 古代雅典的“教仆”35 古代希腊教育中的“三艺”44 试述古希腊雅典教育繁荣的历史原因41 简述智者在古希腊教育发展中的贡献44 简述斯巴达教育体系的基本特点。31 简述雅典教育体系的基本特点及其主要表现。34 简述斯巴达教育体系的基本特点及其主要表现。31 简述希腊化时期，教育的变化主要体现在哪些方面？47 试比较建立在不同的奴隶制经济、政治以及文化条件下的斯巴达和雅典教育的异同。第三章 苏格拉底法57 柏拉图“学习即回忆说”68 简述苏格拉底的“知识助产术”。57 试论苏格拉底方法的内容、优点及适用条件57 怎样看待柏拉图关于“学习就是回忆”的观点？68 第四章 《雄辨术原理》95 关于教师，昆体良有何论述？100 简述古代罗马共和早期的教育特点。82 简述古代罗马共和晚期的学校教育制度。83 简述昆体良关于学校教育优于家庭教育的思想。97 简述古代罗马帝国时期的教育变革表现在哪些方面？86 简述雄辩家西塞罗认为要想成为一个名副其实的雄辩家必须具备的条件。92 第五章 城市学校 129 骑士教育118 中世纪大学 121 简述西欧骑士教育的主要特点。119 简述中世纪大学的形成有哪些途径？122 简述西欧中世纪早期教育的基本特点（等级性、宗教性） 简述欧洲中世纪基督教的教育形式和机构。108 试论西欧中世纪后期城市学校的产生及其意义。129 第六章 昆它布139 阿拉伯学馆141 简述拜占廷教育特点及其影响149
英国文学简史期末考试复习要点 刘炳善版
英国文学史资料British Writers and Works I. Old English Literature & The Late Medieval Ages
工程热力学1期末试题+答案
图 1 图2 2012工程热力学Ⅰ考题（A ） 一、简答题（共30分） 1、图1中循环1-2-3-a -1和循环1-b -3-4-1都是不可逆 循环。有人判断循环1-2-3-a -1的热效率高于循环1-b -3-4-1的热效率，你是否同意他的说法，为什么？（10分） 2、有一种热机，以水蒸气为工质，循环的高温热源温度为1200 K ，低温热源温度为300 K ，循环的热效率t η。现将循环工质改成理想气体，则循环的热效率t'η与原循环热效率比较将发生什么样的变化？为什么？ （10分） 3、“水蒸气的朗肯循环中乏汽在冷凝器中凝结释放出大量热量，有人提出将汽轮机排出的乏汽直接送回锅炉可提高水蒸气循环的热效率。”请据热力学基本定律出发评估这种观点。（10分） 二、计算题（共70分） 1、一种切割工具利用从喷嘴射出的高速水流切割材料，供水压力为200kPa 、温度20℃， 喷嘴内径为0.002m 时，射出水流温度20℃，压力100kPa ，流速1000m/s ，已知在200kPa 、20℃时，3 0.001002m /kg v =，假定可近似认为水的比体积不变，求水泵功率。（10分） 2、某太阳能供暖的房屋用5×8×0.3m 的大块混凝土板作为蓄热材料，该混凝土的密度为2300kg/m 3 ，比热容0.65kJ/(kg ·K)。若混凝土板在晚上从23℃冷却到18℃（室内温度），求此过程的熵产。（10分） 3、某活塞式内燃机定容加热理想循环（图2循环1-2-3-4-1），压缩比ε =10，压缩冲程的起点状态是t 1=35℃ 、p 1=100kPa 。加热过程中气体吸热650kJ/kg 。假定比热容为定值，且c p =1.004kJ/（kg·K），κ =1.4，求：（1）循环中各点的温度、压力和循环热效率；（2）若循环压缩过程和膨胀过程均不可逆，两过程的熵产分别为0.1kJ/(kg·K)和0.12 kJ/(kg·K)，求工质 经循环后的熵变； （3） 若膨胀过程持续到5（p 5 = p 1），画出循环T-s 图，并分析循环热效率提高还是下降。（10+5+5分） 4、空气在轴流压缩机中被绝热压缩，压力比为4.2，初终态温度分别为30℃和227℃。
英国文学简史复习资料
A SHORT HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE 1. the Angles, Saxons and Jutes were three tribes from Northern Europe. 2.English literature began with the Anglo-Saxon settlement in England. It is Beowulf, the national epic of the English people. 3.Features of Beowulf 贝奥武普: the most striking feature in its poetical form is the use of alliteration头韵.（definition）In alliterative verse, certain accented words in a line begin with the same consonant sound. Other features of Beowulf are the use of metaphors and of understatements. 4. The French-speaking Normans under Duke William came in 1066.(the Norman Conquest) 5. The Romance 罗曼司---the most prevailing kind of literature in feudal England. It was a long composition, sometimes in prose, describing the life and a adventures of a noble hero. Adventures of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table 6. The Class Nature of the Romance The theme of loyalty to king and lord was repeatedly emphasized in romance , as loyalty was the corner-stone of feudal morality, without which the whole structure of feudalism would collapse. They were composed for the noble, of the noble, and in most cases by the poets patronized by the noble. 7.the Ballads 民谣The most important department of English folk literature is the ballad. A ballad is a story told in song; usually in 4-line, with the second and fourth lines rhymed. 8. The Robin Hood Ballad --- the various ballads of Robin Hood are gathered into a collection called The Geste of Robin Hood.绿林好汉罗宾汉的故事 9. The founder of English poetry is Geoffrey Chaucer. 乔叟 The Canterbury Tales ---(1) a collection of 24 stories (2)close links---stories are closely connected to each other (3)stories into groups on different subjects -- story-tellers, from ranks, professions, religions (4)variation in form 三大著名教堂：Westminster Cathedral 西敏寺大教堂Saint Pail’s Cathedral 圣保罗大教堂Canterbury Cathedral 坎特布雷大教堂 10.The Renaissance and Humanism The rise of the bourgeoisie soon showed its influence in the sphere of cultural life. The result is an intellectual movement known as the Renaissance, or, the rebirth of letters. It spang first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe. Two features
工程热力学复习重点及简答题
工程热力学复习重点2012. 3 绪论 [1]理解和掌握工程热力学的研究对象、主要研究内容和研究方法 [2]理解热能利用的两种主要方式及其特点 [3]了解常用的热能动力转换装置的工作过程 1．什么是工程热力学 从工程技术观点出发，研究物质的热力学性质，热能转换为机械能的规律和方法，以及有效、合理地利用热能的途径。 2．能源的地位与作用及我国能源面临的主要问题 3. 热能及其利用 [1]热能：能量的一种形式 [2]来源：一次能源：以自然形式存在，可利用的能源。 如风能,水力能,太阳能、地热能、化学能和核能等。 二次能源：由一次能源转换而来的能源，如机械能、机械能等。 [3]利用形式： 直接利用：将热能利用来直接加热物体。如烘干、采暖、熔炼(能源消耗比例大) 间接利用：各种热能动力装置，将热能转换成机械能或者再转换成电能， 4．.热能动力转换装置的工作过程 5．热能利用的方向性及能量的两种属性 [1]过程的方向性：如：由高温传向低温 [2]能量属性：数量属性、,质量属性(即做功能力) [3]数量守衡、质量不守衡 [4]提高热能利用率：能源消耗量与国民生产总值成正比。 第1章基本概念及定义 1. 1 热力系统 一、热力系统 系统：用界面从周围的环境中分割出来的研究对象，或空间内物体的总和。 外界：与系统相互作用的环境。 界面：假想的、实际的、固定的、运动的、变形的。 依据：系统与外界的关系 系统与外界的作用：热交换、功交换、质交换。 二、闭口系统和开口系统 闭口系统：系统内外无物质交换,称控制质量。 开口系统：系统内外有物质交换,称控制体积。 三、绝热系统与孤立系统 绝热系统：系统内外无热量交换(系统传递的热量可忽略不计时，可认为绝热) 孤立系统：系统与外界既无能量传递也无物质交换
英美文学复习资料
英美文学复习资料 English Literary History 1. Beowulf is regarded as the national epic of the Anglo-Saxons. 2. Romance is a popular literary form in the medieval period. 3. Geoffrey Chaucer has been called the father of English poetry. His masterpiece is The Canterbury Tales. 4. Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. 5. Edmund Spenser is known as “the poets’ poet”. Masterpiece the Faerie Queene is a great poem of its age. 6. Christopher Marlowe is the most gifted of the “University Wits”. His masterpieces are T amburlaine, Dr. Faustus, the Jew of Malta and Edward II. Marlowe’s greatest achievement lies in that he perfected the blank verse and made it the principal medium of English drama and the creation of the Renaissance hero for English drama. 7. William Shakespeare is one of the most remarkable playwrights and poets. His greatest tragedies are Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. The Merchant of Venice is the most important play among the comedies. 8. Francis Bacon is a well-known Renaissance philosopher, scientist and essayist. 9. John Donne is the leading figure of the “Metaphysical school.” 10. The neoclassical period,that is the eighteenth-century England is also known as the Age of enlightenment or the Age of Reason. Enlightenment Movement brought about in reviving the interest in old classical works is known as neoclassicism. 11. The mid-century was predominated by a newly rising literary form – the modern English novel. 12. John Bunyan was a devout Christian, and a firm non-conformist of the Anglican Church. His masterpiece is the Pilgrim’s Progress. (最成功的宗教寓言诗) 13. Alexander Pope’s best satiric work is The Dunciad (愚人志). 14. Daniel Defoe’s works are the first literary writings devoted to the study of problems of the lower-class people. 15. Jonathan S wift was a master satirist. His “A Modest Proposal” is generally taken as a perfect model. 16. Henry Fielding is regarded as “father of the English Novel”. He was the first to set out, both in theory and practice, to write specifically a “comic epic in prose”, the first to give the modern novel its structure and style. 17. Samuel Johnson, as a lexicographer, distinguished himself as the author of the first English dictionary by an Englishman –A Dictionary of the English Language. 18. Richard Brinsley Sheridan is the only important English dramatist of the eighteenth century. His plays, especially the Rivals and the School for Scandal, are generally regarded as important links between the masterpieces of Shakespeare and those of Bernard Shaw, and as the true classics in English comedy. 19. Thomas Gray’s masterpiece, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,” establishes his fame as the leader of the sentimental poetry of the day, especially “the Graveyard School.” 20. English Romanticism is generally said to have begun in 1798 with publication of
外国法制史简答题-(1)
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楔形文字法的主要特征①结构体系完整，分为序言、法典本文和结语三部分；②各国统治者有意将法律描绘为神的意志的体现；③法律的内容缺乏一般的抽象概念和立法原则，是习惯的记录。《汉穆拉比法典》的制定原因①迅速消除境内法律的不统一和地方上各自为政的混乱现象；②适应私有关系的发展，调整新产生的各种关系；③缓和自由民内部的矛盾稳定社会秩序，巩固奴隶主阶级的统治。《汉穆拉比法典》的主要内容和特点①极力维护君主专制制度，借神权保护王权；②充分保护奴隶主对财产和奴隶的私有权；③反映阶级对立关系和自由民内部地位和权利的不平等；（阿维鲁、穆什凯努）④包含着大量调整手工业和商业的规范；⑤保存了若干原始公社制的残余。古代印度法律的特征①印度宗教众多，影响到印度法律的结构、体系异常复杂；②宗教与法律紧密结合，两者互为补充；③公开宣扬社会的不平等，形成一套完整的种姓制度；④汇合法律、伦理道德和哲学为一体，法典实质是三者的混合物；⑤法典是由宗教人士和婆罗门教的僧侣贵族编纂的。《摩奴法典》的主要内容①公开确认种姓制及等级差别；②以婆罗门教教义为指导思想；③将专制君主神圣化，用神权维护奴隶主阶级的统治。古希腊法律的特点①由于自然环境，没有出现适用于全境的法律，长期分立；②成文法出现较早，从氏族转变为国家过程中许多城邦进行了立法；③从埃及和西亚邻国的法律中吸取了经验，又对罗马法有较大影响；④缺少对法律条文的理论研究，没有在理论上达到精深的程度；⑤被推广适用到各城邦在各地建立的殖民地中。以下为需要文章数达到20才能浏览的内容雅典民主制确立、发展的过程⒈梭伦立法改革为民主制奠定初步基础。（前594）①以财产多寡作为参与国家管理活动的标准而不像过去依靠地位和身份；②逐步从国家政权机关中排除贵族势力使雅典政治开始民主化；③新设四百人议会和陪审法院，吸引较多的雅典公民参加国家事务的管理。⒉克里斯特尼立法改革使民主制趋于巩固。（前509）"贝壳放逐法"⒊阿菲埃尔特改革使雅典民主制获得高度发展。（前462）"不法申诉制度"⒋伯里克利立法改革使民主制达到顶峰。雅典民主制产生的条件①工商业发达农业落后，因此氏族贵族的势力相对软弱；②较早地形成了工商业奴隶主集团；③广大农民、手工业者要求改善自己的政治地位；④雅典的奴隶比自由民多数倍，缓和自由民内部矛盾可加强对奴隶的统治。雅典"宪法"的民主性①形式上允许一切雅典公民参与国家的日常活动；②大多数国家公职人员都是选举产生，且集体职务多于个人职务；③公民能通过各种制度直接捍卫民主制度，免遭反民主势力破坏。雅典"宪法"的局限性①民主制"宪法"的实施局限在一个狭小的范围内；②参加民众大会的公民虽可得到津贴，但仍有不少困难；③通过投票选举的公职人员需符合一定条件且要经过特别审查；④统治阶级采取多种措施限制民众大会的作用。罗马法的渊源1习惯法（十二表法）、2民众大会（①贵族议会②百人团会议③平民会议）制定的法律、3元老院通过的决议、4长官的告示、5法学家的解答、6皇帝的敕令（敕谕、敕裁、敕答、敕示）、7法典编纂。罗马法的分类⒈公法和私法；⒉成文法和不成文法；⒊市民法、万民法、自然法；⒋市民法和长官法（裁判官法）。日耳曼法的基本特点①团体本位的法律；②属人主义的法律；③具体的法律；④注重形式，注重法律行为的外部表现；⑤世俗的法律。债权法的特点⒈债权制度不发达；（①契约种类很少；②契约的订立很重形式〈宣誓、扣押财产和人身、设定动产和不动产质权〉）；⒉严格保护债权人 的利益。曼婚姻、家庭制度的特点①一般实行一夫一妻制但贵族和国王是一夫多妻；②实行买卖婚和抢夺婚；③实行家长制。日耳曼法律的继承制度：一律实行法定继承。耳曼法犯罪和侵权行为的区别①侵犯私人利益构成侵权行为，侵犯公共利益构成犯罪；②侵权行为引起私人复仇，犯罪由公共权力机关进行惩罚。日耳曼刑法的主要特点①犯罪种类由少到多；②刑罚从简单到复杂；③只要有加害行为和危害结果就构成犯罪，不考虑主观意图，没有故意和过失的区别。日耳曼诉讼制度的特点①实行自诉原则但后期出现了纠问主义诉讼；②诉讼证据的原始性和特权性。通常使用的证据是宣誓、神明裁判和决斗。法兰西王国9-13世纪法律特点⒈属地主义代替了属人主义；⒉主要实行不成文的习惯法；⒊法律是分散和极不统一的，但明显划分为南北两部分。法兰西王国13-16世纪法律的变化⒈习惯法的成文化及其分散性逐步减轻；13世纪私人著作《诺曼底大习惯法典》、《圣路易习惯汇编》、《波瓦西习惯集》16世纪官方著作《奥尔良习惯汇编》、《巴黎习惯汇编》、《不列塔尼习惯汇编》⒉王室立法的加强；①巴黎高等法院判例法的形成②国王政府直接颁布的法令也增多起来⒊罗马法复兴和商法的发展。法兰西王国16-18世纪君主专制时期法律的变化⒈法律通过王室立法进一步统一起来而习惯法的分散性、混乱性仍严重存在；⒉王室立法成为主要的法律渊源，地位达到顶峰；⒊教会法仍占重要地位。英国制定法的特点①在整个法律体系中只居于次要地位，起补充、解释判例法的作用；②从效力上看在中世纪就确立了制定法优于判例法的原则；③制定法只有在审判实践中适用，"重新肯定"后才能进入英国法体系。英国的土地所有权及其特点中世纪土地占有形式：①自由租赁；②不自由租赁（交租）。中世纪英国根据持有土地期限的长短和享有权利的大小形成了三种地产权：①终身保有的地权；②限定继承的地权；③无条件继承的地权。西欧中世纪"复兴"罗马法的原因根本原因是社会经济关系发展的客观需要。直接原因为发现《学说汇纂》的原稿。罗马法"复兴"的过程①罗马法"复兴"的开端，注释法学派的形成及其作用；（伊纳留--"法律之光"）②罗马法"复兴"的高潮，评论法学派（后期注释法学派）的兴起及其贡献；③罗马法"复兴"在意大利以外的传播。罗马法"复兴"的意义①有利于民族统一国家的形成；②促进了法学的发展，为资本主义经济的成长提供了现成的法律形式；③为新兴的资产阶级的反封建斗争提供了思想武器。中世纪西欧城市法的形成及其表现形式（法律渊源）①特许状；②城市立法；③行会章程；④习惯和判例中世纪西欧城市法的基本内容（为什么说城市法广泛涉及到公法和私法的各个领域？）①市民身份；②城市机关的组织；③行会组织；④所有权和债权方面。教会法的渊源①《新、旧约全书》（俗称《圣经》）公元4世纪编纂；②教皇的教令集；12世纪格拉蒂安编《格拉蒂安教令集》官编《尼卜法八世教令集》、《克雷门五世教令集》16世纪《教会法大全》③宗教会议的决议；④从世俗法借来的法规。（主要是罗马法，也有一些地方法包括习惯法）教会法中的家庭婚姻与继承制度①一夫一妻制；②婚姻以双方合意为成立条件；③禁止离婚；④族外通婚制；⑤夫妻之间的不平等原则。继承方面采用遗嘱继承和无遗嘱继承两种制度，但更盛行遗嘱继承。伊斯兰法的渊源①古兰经；②圣训；③教法学（类比、公议）；④其它（哈里发的行政法令、习惯法、外来法律）。伊斯兰法的基本特点①同伊斯兰教密切联系；②具有独特的发展道路，教法学家在其中起了重大作用；③原则上的严格性和实践中的灵活性；④分散性、杂乱性与兼收并 蓄。伊斯兰债法的特点①买卖契约是普遍流行的标准契约形式②应严格履行契约③禁止利息。伊斯兰婚姻家庭法的特点①有条件地允许一夫多妻②夫妻关系上男尊女卑③准许离婚。伊斯兰继承法的特点①较早地赋予妇女继承权；②较早出现遗嘱继承；③在法定继承中，遗产分配的比例按合法继承人人数的多少来确定。伊斯兰刑法的特点①没有形成犯罪的一般概念，没有把民事侵权责任和犯罪明确划分开；②把犯罪分为《古兰经》规定了固定刑罚的犯罪和《古兰经》未规定固定刑罚的犯罪；③刑罚很残酷。英国资产阶级革命对封建法律的继承和发展①法官和法学家用17-18世纪的精神来解释普通法的古老原则，使其适合资本主义的要求；②通过审判以判例形式吸收适合资本主义需要的法律制度、原则推动普通法的资本主义化；③制定了一系列新的法令和条例，作为对旧法的补充和修改，以弥补旧法的不足。产业革命后英国法律制度的近代化改革和发展①整顿和改革了旧的刻板繁琐的诉讼程序；②精简和改革了旧的分散重叠的法院组织；③制定了大量成文法，革除了封建法的残余并创立了一些新的法律制度。英国法律的基本特点①判例法是法律的主要渊源；②遵循先例原则和判例汇编具有重要意义；③法官和法学家对法律的发展起着重要作用；④受罗马法的影响不同于大陆法。英国宪法的基本特点①英国宪法是不成文宪法；②英国宪法渊源的多样性和分散性；③英国宪法是"柔性"宪法。英国宪法的基本内容⒈肯定了英国的议会制君主立宪政体；①英王是世袭的国家元首；②议会是唯一立法机关；③内阁是政府的领导核心；④司法独立，法官审判只服从法律。⒉规定了臣民的基本权利和义务。英国的财产法①革命时期的土地立法；②革命后对旧法的改革和土地无限私有制的确立。英国的契约法及契约成立的条件①当事人必须具有缔结契约的能力；②必须由双方当事人自愿达成协议；③必须具备有价值的对价；④契约内容必须合法；⑤某些契约尚必须遵守法定形式。英国的侵权行为法及侵权行为的成立条件①侵犯了他人的权利；②非法的作为或不作为；③行为人应存在故意或过失。英国的家庭法和继承法19世纪后英国刑法有哪些主要发展变化①犯罪；②刑罚。19世纪后英国法院组织和诉讼制度经过了哪些改革①确立了辩论式诉讼；②继续实行陪审制；③实行辩护制度。现代英国法律发展的趋势①制定法的比重和作用上升，并逐渐趋于系统化；（法令汇编、法律编纂）②英国法律在英格兰以外地区的使用范围缩小；③欧洲共同体法对英国法的影响。现代英国宪法的变化①《退位法》和《摄政法》的制定；②议会和内阁之间实际权力的某些调整，委托立法的增多；③选举制度的改革；④两党政治的加强；⑤文官地位的提高。现代英国财产法的改革①废除了对财产的封建性分类，即废除"物的财产"和"人的财产"的分类，正式采用了罗马法关于动产和不动产的分类方法；②统一了土地和动产的移转规则；③扩大了动产所有权的范围。英国财产法对所有权的限制，（所有权"合理使用"的理论）。现代英国契约法的变化①"标准式契约"出现，"契约自由"受到限制；②契约效力"阻碍"说得到发展，"契约神圣"的原则受到限制；③诚实信任原则和不可抗力条款成了契约效力的一般原则，起着指导和补充契约履行的功能。现代英国侵权行为法的发展⒈出现了一些新的侵权行为；（类似于无过失责任）⒉侵权行为构成条件方面的变化；（强调主观恶意）⒊侵权行为责任原则方面的变化。①扩大了无过失责任原则的适用范围；②出现了"比例责任制"；③废除了共同侵权行为的连带责任原则，代之以分摊责任原则。现代英国婚姻家庭法的变化①以感情"破裂"的离婚 原则取代了过去的"过错"离婚原则，妇女获得了与男子平等的离婚权利；②废除了"夫妻一体制"的封建残余，妇女在法律上享有取得、占有和处分任何财产的能力。现代英国继承法方面的变化⒈遗嘱继承方面的变化；（①规定妇女享有完全的遗嘱能力②对遗嘱绝对自由进行了限制）⒉无遗嘱继承方面的变化；⒊非婚生子女与婚生子女取得平等继承权。英国商法不同于罗马日耳曼法系商法的特点①英国没有统一的商法典，因而它同其他部门法的界限不十分明确；②英国商法的渊源中惯例占重要地位。英国知识产权法的发展⒈工业产权；（①发明专利②工业品外观设计③商标）⒉版权。现代英国经济法的发展①国家通过国有化法令直接控制重要的工业和公用事业；②国家通过财政等措施来控制和影响全国工业发展的进程；③国家通过立法对限制性贸易的维持，以及垄断和合并实行控制；④国家通过保护消费者利益法对零售商业进行管理。现代英国刑法的变化⒈犯罪方面：①废除了关于重罪和轻罪的分类代之以应予起诉罪、简易审决罪和既可起诉亦可简易审决罪三类；②颁布了大量单行刑事法规对过去关于某些犯罪的法律规定进行了某些修改和补充。⒉刑罚方面：①废除了肉刑、刑事劳役和苦役；②宣布永远废除死刑。美国法律与英国法律的关系①美国采用了英国普通、衡平和制定法的传统形式继承了许多概念和原则；②美国法律与英国法律之间存在着渊源关系。1787年宪法以前所发布的宪法性文件①独立宣言；②邦联条例。《独立宣言》的内容①宣告了"天赋人权"原则；②宣告了"人民主权"原则；③最后列举了英国的28条罪状后宣告脱离英国，成立共和国。《邦联条例》的内容①宣告美国的国家结构形式是"邦联"，名称为"美利坚合众国"；②规定缔结邦联的目的是"为了共同防御和彼此间负有互相援助的义务等"；③规定各州保留其主权、自由和独立，以及除授予国会的权力以外一切权力；④规定邦联的最高权力机关是一院制的国会，没有常设行政和司法机关，只在国会闭会期间设立"各州委员会"代行国会的职权。1787年美国宪法的基本特点①宪法规定美国是一个实行联邦制的总统制的共和国；②国家权力的分配采取"三权分立，相互制衡"的原则；③宪法关于公民的基本权利是以后追加的；④对宪法的增修采取宪法修正案的方式。宪法修正案前十条即权利法案。13条废除了奴隶制；15条规定不得因种族肤色限制或剥夺公民投票权；17条规定参议院议员由每州人民直接选举。路易斯安那州为罗马日耳曼法系。