《英国文学选读》教案

《英国文学选读》教学大纲

Goals and Purposes

To let the students see the significance of literature;

To let the students have the general impression of British literature

Main Contents

Main plot /General clue of English literature

Keys and Obstacles

To get to know the general clue of the British history and British literary history

To get to know some key terms and well-known works and the writers

Teaching Methods and Strategies

Open questions and answers in class

Class discussion and analysis

Main Body

I. General Introduction

1.Warming-up questions:

1)How much do you know about English literature?

2)Why do we learn literature?—A good way to improve the language-learning itself; a

good way to broaden the sphere of knowledge; to provoke deep-thinking and to provide

different w ays to look at life and the world; to enhance one‘s understanding of history,

politics, culture and the miniature of the society; to enrich one‘s life and improve one‘s

quality; to improve one‘s insight into human character…

Words used to describe literature: artistic, beautiful,

emotional, expressive, imitating, imaginative, informative, instructive,pleasing, passion

ate,reflective, valuable

2.Main plot /General clue of English literature:

English literature began with the Anglo-Saxon settlement in England. The study of English literature usually begins with the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf. The Anglo-Saxons first brought to England the Germanic language and culture. After the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Normans bought to England a fresh wave of Mediterranean civilization, which includes Greek culture, Roman law, and the Christian religion. It is the cultural influences of these two conquests that provide the source for the rise and growth of English literature. The English at that time was called Old English, which is quite hard to recognize today.

Geoffrey Chaucer, father of English literature, is a great representative of the Mediaeval Age. He‘s the first person to use English to write stories.

By the time of Queen Elizabeth I‘s re ign (1558-1603), English was basically as it is today.

In the works of Shakespeare and later in the King James version of the Bible, English reached its peak of purity and beauty. In all the centuries since, the English language has undergone gradual changes. Shakespeare lives in this age but he belongs to all ages. He is the greatest playwright and poet. His masterful plays have dominated English-speaking stages ever since they were written. They have been translated into every major language. Among all his 38 plays, the

well-known four greatest tragedies are: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth.

The 17th century witnesses the Great Revolution in England. In this period, John Milton finished writing his masterpieces Paradise Lost, Paradise regained, and Samson Agonistes after he became blind.

The 18th century English literature is marked by a rather large shift from the mood and tone of the 17th century. In this period, Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest figures. His Gulliver’s Travels not only satirized the political circle but also entertained many children with his fantastic stories. Daniel Defoe, father of English novels, was also worth mentioning.Robinson Crusoe is the most famous tale of shipwreck and solitary survival in all literature.

Roughly the first third of the 19th century makes up English literature‘s romantic period. Writers of romantic literature are more concerned with imagination and emotion than with the power of reason, which marked the 18th century. Wordsworth and Coleridge published their Lyrical Ballads in 1798, which was called romantic poetry‘s Declaration of Independence. Together with Robert Southey, they were called ―Lake Poets‖ since all of them lived in the Lake District and admired nature very much. Byron, Keats and Shelly are all well-known figures in this period. Jane Austen was the only famous woman novelist, with her graceful novels, like Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, and Emma.

The romantic period shades gradually into the Victorian age, which takes its name from Queen Victoria. She came to the throne in 1837 and reigned until 1901. Historical and philosophical writing continued to flourish along with poetry and fiction. At the same time, satire and protest against evils in society became strong elements. Among the famous novelists of the time were the critical realists like Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and Bronte sisters. In Charles Dickens‘ novels, he combines a rare comic gift and a power to reduce the readers to tears. Thomas Hardy lived well into the 20th century, but did his major work as a novelist in the 19th century, as a poet he belongs to the 20th.

20th century is the most difficult to summarize. It has witnessed wars and revolutions. And the postwar economic dislocation and spiritual disillusion produced a profound impact upon the British people, who came to see the prevalent wretchedness in capitalism. Britain suffered heavy losses in the war: thousands of people were killed; the economy was ruined; and almost all its former colonies were lost. The sun-never-set Empire finally collapsed. 20th century has marked the end of the British Empire. With the development of science and technology, various ideas and theories have been printed or passed on, through newspapers, radio and TV. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels put forward the theory of scientific socialism; Darwin‘s theory of evolution caused many people to lose their religious faith; the social Darwinism, under the cover of ―survival of the fittest‖, strongly advocated colonialism and jingoism; Freud‘s analytical psychology drastically altered people‘s conception of human nature; Friedrich Nietzsche went further against rationalism by advocating the doctrines of power and superman and by completely rejecting the Christian morality. All in all, modernism rose out of skepticism and disillusion of capitalism. New ideas in writing were mixed with the old, to follow the changing times. The major themes of the modernist literature are the distorted, alienated and ill relationships between man and nature, man and society, man and man, and man and himself. All kinds of literary trends of modernism appeared: symbolism, expressionism, surrealism, futurism, Dadaism, imagism, and stream of consciousness, Theater of the Absurd, black humor. Many outstanding men of letters emerged, James Joyce, D·H·Lawrence, Virginia Woolf,

E.M.Forster, T.S.Eliot, to name a few.

II.Requirement

1.Following every unit, there are some questions. These questions may stimulate your thinking

and thus help you write. I belie ve and I ask you to believe that there are in fact no ―right answers‖, only more or less persuasive ones, to most questions about literature—as about life.

2.Everybody is expected to write a book review on some famous works, like Jane Austen‘s

Pride and Prejudice, Charles Dickens‘ A Tale of Two Cities, Thomas Hardy‘s Tess of D’Urbevilles, Charlotte Bronte‘s Jane Eyre, Emily Bronte‘s Wuthering Heights, William Golding‘s Lord of the Flies, Kingsley Amis‘ Lucky Jim, John Fowles‘ The French Lieutenant’s woman, E.M.Forster‘s A Passage to India.

3.Everybody has a chance to give an oral duty report. In the first turn, you can talk about

anything that is related to literature: Y our general view on literature; literature‘s influence on you; your view on the literary circle or even Chinese literature; any knowledgeable persons you‘ve ever met. In the second turn, you can introduce a British novel to the class and give brief comment on the book.

4.Read Shakespeare‘s masterpiece The Merchant of Venice. Then we will discuss this play

from different angles. (Portia—a feminist; Shylock—a wronged Jew; Antonio—selfish or unselfish; usurers—cruel capitalists)

5.Don‘t play truant. Y our class performance is a key element to decide whether you can pass

this course or not.

Unit 1 Geoffrey Chaucer

Goals and Purposes

To let the students get to know Geoffrey Chaucer

To let the students understand the main idea of The Canterbury Tales

Main Contents

The background of the author‘s time

The main idea and the significance of The Canterbury Tales

Keys and Obstacles

To get to know the general idea of The Canterbury Tales

To get to know some literary terms

Teaching Methods and Strategies

Open questions and answers in class

Class discussion and analysis

Main Body

1. about the author

Geoffrey Chaucer, the ―father of English poetry‖ and one of the greatest narrative poets of England, was born in London in or about the year 1340. He is said to have studied at Oxford and Cambridge. The poet died on the 25th of October in 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Chaucer‘s language, now called Middle English, is vivid and exact. Though drawing influence from French, Italian and Latin models, he is the first great poet who wrote in the English language. His production of so much excellent poetry was an important factor in establishing English as the literary language of the country. The spoken English of the time consisted of several dialects, and Chaucer did much in making the dialect of London the standard for the modern English speech..

乔叟出生于伦敦一家富裕的中产阶级家庭，父亲是酒商兼皮革商。乔叟可能上过牛津大学或剑桥大学。1357年进入宫廷，任英王爱德华三世的儿媳阿尔斯特伯爵夫人身边的少年侍从。1359年，随爱德华三世出征法国，被法军俘虏，后被爱德华赎回。1366年，乔叟和菲莉帕结婚。菲莉帕的妹妹后来嫁给爱德华的次子兰开斯特公爵，乔叟因而受到兰开斯特公爵的保护。同时，乔叟也是爱德华三世的侍从骑士。1369年，兰开斯特公爵贡特约翰的元配夫人布兰希逝世，乔叟写了悼亡诗《公爵夫人的书》（1369～1370）来安慰他的保护人。1370至1378年之间，乔叟经常出国访问欧洲大陆，执行外交谈判任务。他曾两度访问意大利(1372～1373;1378)，这对他的文学创作起了极为重要的作用。他发现了但丁、薄伽丘和彼特拉克的作品，这些作品深刻地影响了他的创作，使他从接受法国文学传统转向接受意大利文学传统。从1374年开始，乔叟担任了一些公职。他先被任命为伦敦港口羊毛、皮革关税总管（1374～1386），后来被英王理查二世任命为皇室修建大臣（1389～1391），主管维修公共建筑、公园、桥梁等。乔叟还担任过肯特郡的治安官（1386），并当选为代表肯特郡的国会议员(1386)。后来乔叟还担任过管理萨默塞特郡皇家森林的森林官(1391)。乔叟于1400年10月25日在伦敦逝世，葬于威斯敏斯特教堂里的“诗人之角”。

乔叟把属于中古英语的东中部方言（伦敦方言）提高成为英国的文学语言。他又善于继承和吸收法国诗人和意大利诗人的诗歌技巧，并且运用这些技巧来丰富和提高英诗的表达能力。乔叟的最早的作品之一是他翻译的法文诗《玫瑰传奇》（1370）。这个英译本的前1,700行诗一般公认为出自乔叟的手笔。这个作品和上面提到的《公爵夫人的书》都是用八音节双韵诗体写成的，都显示出法国爱情诗的影响。后来，乔叟写了《声誉之宫》（1379或1380），也是用八音节双韵诗体写成，但是这个作

品却显示出意大利诗人但丁的《神曲》的影响。因此可以把《声誉之宫》看成是乔叟从接受法国文学传统转变到意大利文学传统的过渡时期的作品。不久后，乔叟翻译了罗马哲学家博埃齐乌斯的著作《哲学的安慰》（约524）,易名为《博埃齐乌斯》(1381或1382),是英文散文译本。约在同一时期，乔叟还写了《百鸟会议》(1382)，是用―君王诗体‖写成的。这种诗体采用七行诗段的形式,每行为十个音节,韵脚为ababbcc。乔叟是第一个使用这种诗体的英国诗人，但“君王诗体”的名称却来自苏格兰国王詹姆斯一世，他曾用这个诗体写出苏格兰方言爱情诗《国王的书》。实际上这个作品受了乔叟的影响。在写成《百鸟会议》数年以后，乔叟写了《派拉蒙和阿色提》，后来改编成为《骑士讲的故事》。在《贞节妇女的传说》(1386)里，乔叟第一次使用十音节双韵诗体。这个诗体非常重要，因为乔叟的杰作《坎特伯雷故事集》(1387～1400)就是用这个诗体写成的。这个诗体后来演化成为“英雄双韵体”，在新古典主义时期垄断了英国诗坛。除上述作品外，乔叟还写了爱情故事长诗《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》(1385)。这部作品是用“君王诗体”写成的。以上的作品都属于乔叟创作的意大利时期。在这个时期内，乔叟在意大利文学的影响下,进一步发展了法国文学的骑士爱情诗歌的传统,把现实主义因素逐渐加入到这个诗歌传统里来。这主要表现在乔叟的最早的杰作《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》一诗里。这部作品取材于薄伽丘的爱情故事诗《菲洛斯特拉托》。乔叟扩展、发挥、改动了薄伽丘的作品，把他自己的现实生活经验放进这个古老的爱情故事里面，以至于有些批评家把乔叟的《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》看成是最早的一部现实主义小说。

2. about The Canterbury Tales

Chaucer‘s The Canterbury Tales is his masterpiece and one of the monumental works in English literature. The whole poem is a collection of stories strung together with a simple plan.

On a spring evening, the narrator, moved by the passion for wandering, drops himself at the Tabard Inn in Southwark at the south end of London Bridge. Here he meets nine and twenty other pilgrims ready for a journey of 60 miles on horseback to Canterbury. The narrator joined the company. At the suggestion of the host of the inn, they agree to beguile the journey by story-telling. Each is to tell two stories going and two returning. The best story-teller shall be treated with a fine supper at the general expense at the end. The host is to be the judge of the contest. This is a good idea, and a gigantic plan, too. For it should be an immense work of 124 stories. Only 24 were written. But, incomplete aw they are, these tales cover practically all the major types of medieval literature: courtly romance, folk tale, beast fable, story of travel and adventure, saint‘s life, allegorical tale, sermon, alchemical account, and others.

The Prologue provides a framework for the tales. It contains a group of vivid sketches of typical medieval figures. All classes of the English feudal society, except the royalty and the poorest peasant, are represented by these 30 pilgrims.

《坎特伯雷故事集》首页

1387年开始了乔叟创作的成熟期。他写了《坎特伯雷故事集》的总序。他一生的最后十几年大约都用在写这个故事集上面，但并未完成。尽管如此，乔叟的《坎特伯雷故事集》在西方中世纪和文艺复兴时期的故事集当中却是独一无二的，因为乔叟的故事集不仅是一个故事集，而且是一个艺术整体。我们可以把它看作乔叟的现实主义艺术的结晶。《坎特伯雷故事集》的内容如下：一群香客聚会在伦敦泰晤士河南岸一家小旅店里，他们准备到离伦敦70英里外的坎特伯雷城去朝拜殉教圣人托马斯·阿·贝克特的圣词。作者在总序里对每一位香客都作了生动、细致的描写。连诗人（乔叟）在内，香客们一共是31位，代表中世纪英国社会的各阶层。骑士和他的儿子见习骑士代表贵族阶级和骑士精神，伴随他们的是仆人,一名自耕农。接着是一群教会人物,为首的是一位女修道院长，侍候她的人有一名尼姑和三名教士。其他的教会人物有一位和尚和一名托钵僧。其他社会阶层的代表有一位商人、一位牛津大学学生（在14世纪，大学生也属于僧侣阶层，毕业后要担任神职）、律师、自由农民──一位富有的中等地主。还有一群城市中间阶层人物，如一名衣帽商，一名木匠，一名纺织匠，一名染坊工人，一名制挂毯的工人，以及一名厨师，一名船员或水手，一位医生。巴斯城的妇女──“新女姓”的代表，她经营织布生意很发财。乡村牧师──僧侣阶层中社会地位最低下的成员，在乔叟笔下他却是十分高贵的人物。农夫──他是乡村牧师的弟兄，是一个穷苦的农民。还有磨房主、粮食采购员、田产经纪人、教会法庭的差人、教会经售赎罪券者。香客中以后两种最不齿于社

会。最后还有诗人乔叟本人。晚饭后，旅店主人哈里·贝利建议香客们在去坎特伯雷城的来回路上各讲两个故事，他自告奋勇做向导，并担任裁判，看谁的故事讲得最好，可以白吃一餐好饭。总序到此结束。《坎特伯雷故事集》的其余部分包括故事和衔接段落。乔叟没有完成他的预定计划，故事集只有23个故事，其中有两个（厨师和见习骑士各自讲的故事）没有讲完。还有7 处缺衔接段落。大多数的故事，和总序一样，都是用双韵诗体写成的，只有两个故事是用散文写的（一个是诗人乔叟自己讲的《梅里白的故事》，另一个是乡村牧师讲的故事）。还有4个故事（律师、女修道院长、牛津大学学生，以及第二个尼姑各自讲的故事）是用七行诗段（称为“君王诗体”）写的。另外，和尚讲的故事是用八行诗段写的。这些故事可以分成四组：

①传奇（包括爱情、魔术、骑士探险等故事），如骑士、巴斯城的妇女、见习骑士和自由农民各自讲的故事。

②虔诚和道德教育故事：如律师、牛津大学学生、第二个尼姑、卖赎罪券者、女修道院长、乔叟自己（《梅里白的故事》）、医生和乡村牧师讲的故事。

③喜剧或滑稽故事：如磨房主、田产经纪人、厨师、托钵僧、教会法庭差人、商人、教士的仆人、船员讲的故事。

④动物寓言，如尼姑的教士和粮食采购员讲的故事。

不属于上列四类的还有和尚讲的关于大人物下台的“悲剧”故事以及乔叟讲的嘲讽传奇《托波斯爵士》。和尚和乔叟讲的故事过于冗长、乏味，被其他香客打断。

从以上的分类可以看出乔叟的高度写作才能。他熟悉中世纪欧洲文学所有的类型，能够运用每一种文学类型的技巧来写出优秀的作品。下列的故事一般公认为是《坎特伯雷故事集》里最好的：

①骑士讲的故事──关于派拉蒙和阿色提爱上艾米里亚的爱情悲剧故事。

②卖赎罪券者讲的故事──关于死神降临贪财者身上的劝世寓言故事。

③尼姑的教士讲的故事──关于狡猾的狐狸和虚荣的公鸡的动物寓言故事。这是乔叟的杰作，他把一个陈旧的寓

言故事转化成一出现实主义的喜剧，内容丰富多采，语言生动活泼，雅俗共赏。

④商人讲的故事──关于“一月”和“五月”的故事（即关于老夫少妻的家庭纠纷的故事）。

⑤自由农民讲的故事──关于忠诚爱情和慷慨行为的故事。

事实上，《坎特伯雷故事集》里的每一个故事都有它的独到之处，读者可以各取所需。除了这些有趣的、深刻的故事外，故事之间的衔接段落也值得赞扬。在这些段落里，乔叟显示出他的戏剧才能，人物性格写得鲜明、突出，对话滑稽、有趣。尤其是巴斯城妇女讲的故事的序言和卖赎罪券者讲的故事的序言，写得最为精彩。

乔叟虽然是个宫廷诗人，他的生活经验却是多方面的。他熟悉14世纪英国社会各阶层的人物，也了解当时的欧洲社会。他熟悉法语和意大利语，但坚持用英语创作。他对英国社会不同阶层人物的语言，都能运用自如。他处理的题材面很广，对不同的题材采取不同的处理方法，写作技巧和手法也是各式各样的。由于他的视野广阔，观察深刻，他写的14世纪英国社会的人物具有超国界的特点，也就是说，乔叟善于写人的普遍的、共同的特点，因此他的作品能够在世界范围内长期吸引读者。乔叟热爱生活，热爱人。他虽然也善于嘲笑和讽刺人们的缺点和错误，但他的总的人生态度是同情和宽容。乔叟是一位严肃的诗人,一方面给读者提供极大的乐趣,另一方面仍对读者进行教育，希望读者成为更理智、更善良的人。但乔叟不愿直接对读者进行说教，总是寓教导于娱乐之中。在关于忠诚爱情和慷慨行为的故事（自由农民讲的故事）里有这样一句话：“真诚是人所能够保持的最高尚的东西。”这是乔叟的道德准则，也是他的艺术标准。乔叟忠诚于真理，忠诚于现实，忠诚于自然（包括人性），忠诚于艺术。乔叟的艺术是现实主义的艺术，他开创了英国文学的现实主义传统。莎士比亚和狄更斯在不同程度上都是乔叟的继承人和弟子。

3. Social significance of the poem

The Canterbury Tales is more than a mere collection of true-to-life pictures. Taking the stand of the rising bourgeoisie, Chaucer affirms men and women‘s right to pursue their happiness on earth and opposes the dogma of asceticism preached by the church. As a forerunner of humanism, he praised man‘s energy, intellect, quick wit and love of life. His tales expose and satirize the evils of the time, as the degeneration of the noble, the heartlessness of judge and so on. With especially formidable force Chaucer attacks the corruption of the church.

4.Some literary terms

1)Heroic couplet: Iambic pentameter lines rhymed in pairs. With Alexander Pope the

heroic couplet became so important and fixed a form—for various purposes—that its

influence dominated English verse for decades, until the romanticists dispelled the

tradition in their demand for a new freedom. eg

but here he ceased and gazed

on all around, affrighted and amazed;

and still he tried to speak, and looked in dread

of frightened females gathering round his bed;

then dropped exhausted and appeared at rest,

till the strong foe the vital powers possessed;

then with an inward, broken voice he cried,

―Again they come,‖ and muttered as he died.

It is called heroic because in England, esp. in the 18th century, it was much used for heroic (epic) poems.

2)iamb: a poetic foot consisting of an unaccented syllable followed by an accented one.

(eg: alone; My heart is like a singing bird)

3)pentameter: a line of verse containing five feet.

4)Meter: any regular pattern of rhythm or pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.

5)Foot: a unit of meter.

6)Rhyme: the repetition of sounds at the ends of words is called rhyme. When words

rhyme at the end of lines of poetry it is called end rhyme.

Answers for reference:

1. early spring. General tone: happy, easy, lively, humorous

Unit 2 William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Goals and Purposes

To let the students get to know sth about Shakespeare

To let the students understand the main idea of some of his well-known works.

Main Contents

The background of the author‘s time

Shakespeare‘s life story

The stories of Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of V enice

Some selections of the above 3 plays

Sonnet 18 of Shakespeare

Keys and Obstacles

To get to know the general idea of the above plays

To understand the selections

Teaching Methods and Strategies

Open questions and answers in class

Class discussion and analysis

Role play

Main Body

1.cultural background—Renaissance

The 16th century in England was a period of the breaking up of feudal relations and the establishment of the foundations of capitalism. It was a time when, according to Thomas More, ―sleep devoured men‖.

The Renaissance marks a transition from the medieval to the modern world. Generally, it refers to the period between the 14th and mid-17th centuries. It first started in Italy, with the flowering of painting, sculpture, architecture, and literature. From Italy the movement spread to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance, which means rebirth or revival, is actually a movement stimulated by a series of historical events, such as the rediscovery of ancient Roman and Greek culture, the new discoveries in geography and astrology, the religious reformation and the economic expansion. The Renaissance, therefore, in essence, is a historical period in which the European humanist thinkers and scholars made attempts to get rid of those old feudalist ideas in medieval Europe, to introduce new ideas that expressed the interests of the rising bourgeoisie, and to recover the purity of the early church from the Roman Catholic Church.

Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. The Renaissance humanist thinkers found that human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development in the direction of perfection, and that the world they inhabited was theirs not to despise but to question, explore, and enjoy. Thus, by emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to enjoy the beauty of this life, but had the ability to perfect himself and perform wonders.

Because of the War of Roses within the country and its weak and unimportant position

in world trade, Renaissance came later in England than other European countries. But when it did come, it was to produce some towering figures in the English, and —world literary heritage — William Shakespeare, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon and a number of humanist scholars. The 16th century was an exciting time for literature. Even in its early years there was a development of new and often complex literary forms and styles. Early in the century Sir Thomas More (1478-1535) wrote a remarkable book, Utopia (1516). Its title comes from the Greek word meaning ―nowhere‖. It tells of a journey to an imaginary island named Utopia, where an ideal form of society exists. It is a picture of an ideal non-Christian state where everybody lives a simple life and shares the goods in common, possesses a good knowledge of Latin, fights no war and enjoys full freedom in religious belief. From Plato to modern times certain writers have created imaginary perfect societies. More‘s book has placed a word in our vocabularies and given the name to all literature of this kind, which has since been called Utopian.

2. about Shakespeare

William Shakespeare is one of the most remarkable playwrights and poets the world has ever known. He was man of the late Renaissance who gave the fullest expression to humanist ideals. With his 37/38/39 plays, 154 sonnets and 2 long poems, he has established his giant position in world literature. His works have been translated into every major language in the world. He has been given the highest praises by various scholars and critics in the world over. His contemporary poet and dramatist Ben Jonson dedicated a poem in praise of him: ―… he was not of an age, but for all time!‖. That is definitely true.

Shakespeare was born in Stratford-on-Avon, a small town to the northwest of London. His father was a burgher, a well-to-do glove maker and later became an alderman of the town. From various records it is clear that his father John Shakespeare, having enjoyed prosperity in business for some time, became less prosperous and Shakespeare might have helped him in his butcher‘s shop. A bond dated Nov. 26, 1582, affords clear evidence that Shakespeare married with Anna Hathaway of Stratford. At this time Shakespeare was only eighteen, and the bride was eight years older. It was very probable that it was a hurried marriage because their first child Susanna was christened on May 26, 1583. The fact that the child was born only six months after the marriage suggests that it was a forced marriage and an ill-matched one.

In 1584 Shakespeare left his native town. Why he did so remains a mystery. The most popular explanation was that he was prosecuted by a big landlord for poaching on his estate. Then until 1592 when he reappeared as a rising actor, Shakespeare disappeared from view. During the period he is said to have wandered through the country, finally coming to London, where he performed various mean jobs, including holding horses at a theater.

The earliest record of Shakespeare‘s career is a reference in Robert Greene‘s essay in which Shakespeare is mentioned as ―an upstart crow…in his own conceit the only shakescene in a country.‖ Shakespeare probably began to write plays around 1590, at first in collaboration with other playwrights or engaged in revising old plays. Then his two narrative poems were published. Venus and Adonis (1593), a poem about the love between a handsome young man, Adonis, and the goddess of love and how the youth was killed by a wild boar. The Rape of Lucrece(1594) is about a Roman lady who was raped and

committed suicide and how she was avenged.

Shakespeare‘s career as an actor and playwright stretched for more than twenty years. Many of his plays were popular and quite a number of them were published in his lifetime without his knowledge. After his death a collection of his plays, 37 in all, were published in folio form by two of his friends in 1623. In the early years of his career Shakespeare was a shareholder in the playhouse. In 1611 or 1612, he retired or partly retired from London and went back to live in his native town. He died in Stratford in 1616.

Shakespeare‘s writing career may be roughly divided into four stages:

The first period (1590-1594): It is Shakespeare‘s period of apprenticeship.

The second period (1595-1600): mature period of ―great comedies‖ and historical plays.

The 3rd period (1601-1607): the period of ―great tragedies and dark comedies‖. His greatest tragedies—Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth.

The 4th period (1608-1612): period of romantic drama.

The early years were years of his apprenticeship, dating from 1592 to 1594. During this period he wrote his early history plays or histories and a group of comedies. They are King Henry VI in three parts (1590-1592), Richard III (1593), Two Gentlemen of Verona (1594), and Love’s Labour Lost (1594). This is a period of experimentation. It is marked by imitation of existing plays, by the spirit of youthfulness and rich imagination, by exaggerated language and by the frequent use of rhymed couplets.

The second period is a period of rapid growth and development, dating from 1595 to 1600. Such plays as Midsummer Night’s Dream(1595), Romeo and Juliet(1596), The Merchant of Venice(1597), the two parts of Henry IV(1597-1598), As You Like it (1598), Julius Caesar (1599), and Henry V (1599), were all written in this period. They show more careful and artistic work, better plot, and a marked increase in the knowledge of human nature.

The third period is a period of gloom and depression, dating from 1601 to 161608. It is a period of his tragedies, such as Hamlet (1601), Othello(1604), King Lear(1605), and Macbeth (1605).

The fourth period is a period of restored serenity, from 1608 to 1612. It is a period of calm after storm, with such plays as The Winter’s Tale 91610) and The Tempest (1611).

Any summing up of Shakespeare‘s achievements will be inadequate. However, the following points may be of some help to readers:

1). Shakespeare represented the trend of history in giving voice to the desires and aspirations of the people. After long years of domestic and foreign wars, both the people and the newly risen bourgeoisie were longing for peace under a strong monarch who would unite the whole country. In the first two periods, Shakespeare wrote a number of plays of England as their background. The whole length of the historical period from Richard II, who was the last medieval king and was displaced by Henry IV, to the defeat of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth by Henry VII, was covered by Shakespeare in his plays. So his plays include the whole transitional period of England from medieval time to modern time. The Elizabethans saw in these plays the deposition of Richard II, the military virtues of

Henry V, the War of the Roses and the rising of the Tudor family, i.e., a whole period of historical transition. It is also true that in the gallery of kings Shakespeare directly or indirectly indicates his view of an ideal king in Henry V who in his youth mixed among the common people and who in a crucial moment won fame by defeating the French army. In the victory of Henry V we see the victory of the new age over the feudal age. The education of Prince Hal, his acquaintance with all strata of life, and his refusal of the extremes of riot (Falstaff) and vain glory (Percy) shows the growth of an ideal king. Shakespeare‘s history plays, therefore, are permeated with patriotism and a feeling of national grandeur.

2). Shakespeare‘s humanism: More important than his historical sense of his time, Shakespeare in his plays reflects the spirit of his age. The sudden awakening of national glory was inseparable with the sudden discovery of the glory that man found in himself. This humanist outlook prevails in his comedies as well as in his late tragedies. And we can trace the change in his humanism. In his early stage, his plays were permeated with optimistic spirit, no matter whether in comedies or tragedies. He had firm belief in the nobility of human nature and in the power of love. People were innocent and were looking at the world with a wonderful eye as if their eyes were newly open to the wonder of the world. Man, who had been debased in the Medieval Age, was now master of himself, and could overcome evils and wickedness in this world. Even in the tragedy this is clear in the dialogue between Romeo and Juliet in the garden when Romeo compares Juliet to the Sun and her eyes to the two ―fairest stars in all the heaven‖. But as the years went on Shakespeare became more mature and his knowledge of human nature grew in depth. The more he knew about human nature, the more he was depressed at the ugliness and baseness of human nature. This pessimistic outlook appears in his tragedies. However, the human dramatist at last overcome spiritual crisis and recovered his faith in human nature and wrote the beautiful romances which ended his career.

3). Shakespeare‘s characters are “round”, in the sense that they have many aspects or dimensions. In his characters, vice and virtue commingle and that is true of the common sense of humanity. They are different from the wooden puppets that the stock-in-trade of the inferior dramatists. For example, Richard III is, in a way, a hero as well as a villain, his psychology being far from simple. Shylock in The merchant of V enice, is not simply a villain, an alien devil, who is bad because he does not accept the religious and social standard of the gentiles, but also a figure of power and dignity whose speech and behavior, for all his conventional villainy, almost redeems him as a tragic hero.

4). Shakespeare‘s originality: Shakespeare drew most of his materials from sources that were known to his audience; some from Roman dramas, some from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and some from other writers‘ plays. But his plays are original because he instilled into the old materials a new spirit that gives new life to his plays. The best example is Hamlet, which bears many resemblances to Thomas Kyd‘s The Spanish Tragedy.

5). Shakespeare as a great poet: Shakespeare was not only a great dramatist, but also a great poet. Apart from his sonnets and long poems, his dramas are poetry. They are rich in

images, conceit, metaphors and symbols. He was well versed in writing lyrical verse as well as poetry of great passion and agony. His style varies with the different moods he expressed. It can be lyrical, poetical, ecstatic, pathetic, cynical, sarcastic, and ironic.

6). Shakespeare as master of the English language: Shakespeare was the master of the English language. It is estimated that he had a command of about 15,000 words. Many of his quotations and phrases have been absorbed into the English language. He was especially successful in handling the different meanings of the same word, or words having the same sound but different meanings.

Shakespeare is against religious persecution and racial discrimination, against social inequality and the corrupting influence of gold and money.

3.you—thou—thee your—thy—thine are—art

4.about Hamlet

Hamlet is considered to be the summit of Shakespeare‘s art. It was written in 1601-1602 and first published in 1603. Hamlet is the profoundest expression of Shakespeare‘s humanism and his criticism of contemporary life.

The story: The king of Denmark, is recently dead, and his brother Claudius has assumed the throne and married his widow Gertrude. Y oung Hamlet learns from the ghost of his father that Claudius murdered him by pouring poison into his ear, and is commanded to avenge the murder without injuring Gertrude. Hamlet tells the story to his best friend Horatio and plans to pretend to be mad at first. He welcomes a group of visiting players, and arranges a performance of a play about fratricide (crime of killing one‘s brother or siste r), which Claudius breaks off, in apparently guilty and fearful fury, when one of the players appears to murder his uncle by pouring poison into his ear. Hamlet refrains from killing Claudius while he is at prayer, but kills Polonius by mistake. Polonius i s his lover Ophelia‘s father. Claudius sends Hamlet to England with sealed orders that he should be killed on arrival. However, Hamlet outwits his murderers and returns to Denmark. During Hamlet‘s absence, Ophelia has gone mad with grief from Hamlet‘s rejection of her and her father‘s death, and is found drowned. Her brother Laertes returns from France intent on avenging his sister‘s death. Hamlet and Laertes meet in the graveyard where Ophelia is to be buried, and fight in her grave. Claudius arranges a fencing match between Hamlet and Laertes, giving the latter a poisoned foil; in a scuffle (混战) an exchange of weapons results in the deaths of both fighters, not before Gertrude has drunk a poisoned cup intended for her son, and the dying Hamlet has succeeded in killing Claudius.

5.translation of the selected part of Hamlet:

生存还是毁灭，这是一个值得思考的问题；默默忍受命运的暴虐的毒箭，或是挺身反抗人世的无涯的苦难，通过斗争把它们扫清，这两种行为，哪一种更高贵？死了；

睡着了；什么都完了；要是在这一种睡眠中，我们心头的创痛，以及其他无数血肉之躯所不能避免的打击，都可以从此消失，那正是我们求之不得的结局。死了；睡着了；睡着了也许还会做梦；恩，阻碍就在这儿：因为当我们摆脱了这一具朽腐的皮囊以后，在那死的睡眠里，究竟将要做些什么梦，那不能不使我们踌躇顾虑。人

们甘心久困于患难之中，也就是为了这个缘故；谁愿意忍受人世的鞭挞和讥嘲、压迫者的凌辱、傲慢者的冷眼、被轻蔑的爱情的惨痛、法律的迁延、官吏的横暴和费尽辛勤所换来的小人的鄙视，要是他只要用一柄小小的刀子，就可以清算他自己的一生？谁愿意负着这样的重担，在烦劳的生命的压迫下呻吟流汗，倘不是因为惧怕不可知的死后，惧怕那从来不曾有一个旅人回来过的神秘之国，是它迷惑了我们的意志，使我们宁愿忍受目前的磨折，不敢向我们所不知道的痛苦飞去？这样，重重的顾虑使我们全变成了懦夫，决心的赤热的光彩，被审慎的思维盖上了一层灰色，伟大的事业在这一种考虑之下，也会逆流而退，失去了行动的意义。

6.about Romeo and Juliet

It is Shakespeare‘s first romantic tragedy. The Montagues and Capulets, the two chief families of V erona, are bitter enemies; Escalus, the prince, threatens anyone who disturbs the peace with death. At a feast given by Capulet, which Romeo attends disguised by a mask, he sees and falls in love with Juliet, Capulet‘s daughter, and she with him. After the feast he overhears, under her window, Juliet‘s confession of her love for hi m, and wins her consent to a secret marriage. With the help of Friar Laurence, they are wedded next day. Mercutio, a friend of Romeo, meets Tybalt, of the Capulet family, who is infuriated by his discovery of Romeo‘s presence at the feast, and they quarrel. Romeo comes on the scene, and attempts to reason with Tybalt, but Tybalt and Mercutio fight, and Mercutio falls. Then Romeo draws and Tybalt is killed. The prince, Montague, and Capulet come up, and Romeo is sentenced to banishment. In great despair, Romeo has to leave Juliet. At the same time, Capulet proposes to marry Juliet to Count Paris. Juliet comes to seek help from the friar, who teaches her to pretend to accept the marriage. According to the friar, on the night before the wedding, Juliet should drink a potion that will make her apparently lifeless for 42 hours. Then the friar will inform Romeo, who will rescue her from the grave on her awakening and carry her away. Unfortunately, the friar‘s message to Romeo miscarries, and Romeo hears that Juliet is dead. Buying poison, he comes to the grave to have a last look at Juliet. He meets Count Paris outside the grave; they fight and Paris is killed. Then Romeo, after a last kiss on Juliet‘s lips, drinks the poison and dies. Juliet awakes and finds Romeo dead by her side, and the cup still in his hand. Guessing what has happened, she stabs herself and dies. The story is unfolded by the friar, and Montague and Capulet, faced by the tragic result of their enmity, are reconciled.

7.translation of the selected part of Romeo and Julie t:

没有受过伤的才会讥笑别人身上的创痕。（朱丽叶自上方窗户中出现）轻声！那边窗子里亮起来的是什么光？那就是东方，朱丽叶就是太阳！起来吧，美丽的太阳！赶走那妒忌的月亮，她因为她的女弟子比她美得多，已经气得面色惨白了。既然她这样妒忌着你，你不要忠于她吧；脱下她给你的这一身惨绿色的贞女的道服，它是只配给愚人穿的。那是我的意中人；啊！那是我的爱；

唉，但愿她知道我在爱着她！她欲言又止，可是她的眼睛已经道出了她的心事。待我去回答她吧；

不，我不要太卤莽，她不是对我说话。天上两颗最灿烂的星，因为有事他去，请求她的眼睛替代它们在空中闪耀。要是她的眼睛变成了天上的星，天上的星变成了她的眼睛，那便怎样呢？她脸上的光辉会掩盖了星星的明亮，正像灯光在朝阳下黯然失色一样；在天上的她的眼睛，会在太空中大放光明，使鸟儿误认为黑夜已经过去而唱出它们的歌声。瞧！她用纤手托住了脸，那姿态是多么美妙！啊，但愿我是那一只手上的手套，好让我亲一亲她脸上的香泽！

朱丽叶: 唉！

罗密欧: 她说话了。啊！再说下去吧，光明的天使！因为我在这夜色之中仰视着你，就像一个尘世的凡人，张大了出神的眼睛，瞻望着一个生着翅膀的天使，驾着白云缓缓地驰过了天空一样。

朱丽叶: 罗密欧啊，罗密欧！为什么你偏偏是罗密欧呢？否认你的父亲，抛弃你的姓名吧；也许你不愿意这样做，那么只要你宣誓做我的爱人，我也不愿再姓凯普莱特了。

罗密欧:（旁白）我还是继续听下去呢，还是现在就对她说话？

朱丽叶; 只有你的名字才是我的仇敌；你即使不姓蒙太古，仍然是这样的一个你。姓不姓蒙太古又有什么关系呢？它又不是手，又不是脚，又不是手臂，又不是脸，又不是身体上任何其他的部分。啊！换一个姓名吧！姓名本来是没有意义的；我们叫做玫瑰的这一种花，要是换了个名字，它的香味还是同样的芬芳；罗密欧要是换了别的名字，他的可爱的完美也决不会有丝毫改变。罗密欧，抛弃了你的名字吧；我愿意把我整个的心灵，赔偿你这一个身外的空名。

罗密欧: 那么我就听你的话，你只要叫我做爱，我就重新受洗，重新命名；从今以后，永远不再叫罗密欧了。

朱丽叶: 你是什么人，在黑夜里躲躲闪闪地偷听人家的话？

罗密欧: 我没法告诉你我叫什么名字。敬爱的神明，我痛恨我自己的名字，因为它是你的仇敌；

要是把它写在纸上，我一定把这几个字撕成粉碎。

朱丽叶: 我的耳朵里还没有灌进从你嘴里吐出来的一百个字，可是我认识你的声音；你不是罗密欧，蒙太古家里的人吗？

罗密欧: 不是，美人，要是你不喜欢这两个名字。

朱丽叶: 告诉我，你怎么会到这儿来，为什么到这儿来？花园的墙这么高，是不容易爬上来的；

要是我家里的人瞧见你在这儿，他们一定不让你活命。

罗密欧: 我借着爱的轻翼飞过园墙，因为砖石的墙垣是不能把爱情阻隔的；爱情的力量所能够做到的事，它都会冒险尝试，所以我不怕你家里人的干涉。

朱丽叶要是他们瞧见了你，一定会把你杀死的。

罗密欧: 唉！你的眼睛比他们二十柄刀剑还厉害；只要你用温柔的眼光看着我，他们就不能伤害我的身体。

朱丽叶: 我怎么也不愿让他们瞧见你在这儿。

罗密欧: 朦胧的夜色可以替我遮过他们的眼睛。只要你爱我，就让他们瞧见我吧；与其因为得不到你的爱情而在这世上捱命，还不如在仇人的刀剑下丧生。

8.sonnet: a 14-line poem, predominantly in iambic pentameter. The rhyme is usually

according to one of the two schemes. The Italian (or Petrarchan) sonnet has two divisions: The first 8 lines (rhyming abba abba) are the octave, and the last six (rhyming cd cd cd, or a variant) are the sestet. The second kind of sonnet, the English (or Shakespearean) sonnet, is usually arranged into 3 quatrains and a couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg. The couplet is usually the conclusion.

9.some selections of The Merchant of Venice

Shylock: Signior Antonio, many a time and oft

In the Rialto you have rated me

About my moneys and usances:

Still have I borne it with a patient shrug,

For sufferance is the badge of all our tribe.

Y ou call me misbeliever, cut-throat dog,

And all for use of that which is mine own.

Well then, it now appears you need my help:

Go to then; you come to me, and you say,

?Shylock, we would have moneys:‘ you say so;

Y ou, that did void your rheum upon my beard,

And foot me as you spurn a stranger cur

Over your threshold. Moneys is your suit.

What should I say to you? Should I not say,

?Hath a dog money? Is it possible

A cur can lend three thousand ducats?‘ or

Shall I bend low, and in a bond man‘s key,

With bated breath, and whispering humbleness,

Say this:

Fair sir, you spat on me on Wednesday last;

Y ou spurn‘d me such a day; another time

Y ou call‘d me dog—and for these courtesies

I‘ll lend you thus much moneys?

Antonio: I am as like to call thee so again,

To spit on thee again, to spurn thee too.

If thou wilt lend this money, lent it not

As to thy friends, for when did friendship take

A breed for barren metal of his friend?

But lent it rather to thine enemy;

Who if he break, thou may‘st with better face

Exact the penalty.

-- Act1, Scene 3,102-133

Shylock: To bait fish withal: if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me, and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies; and what‘s his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge! If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge! The villainy you teach me I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.

-- Act 3, Scene 1

Shylock: What judgment shall I dread, doing no wrong? Y ou have among you many a purchs‘d salve, which, like your asses and your dogs and mules. Y ou use in abject and in slavish parts, because you bought them: shall I say to you, ?Let them be free, marry them to your heirs? Why sweat they under burdens? Let their beds be made as soft as yours, and let their palates be

season‘d with such viands?‘ you will answer, ?the slaves are ours‖. So do I answer you: The pound of flesh which I demand of him, is dearly bought;‘tis mine and I will have it.

-- Act 4, Scene 1

Study questions for The Merchant of Venice:

1. How do you deal with Shylock? Is he sufficiently motivated? Consider his values. (Watch out for his reference to his deceased wife--it's a good clue.)

2. Why is this play set in Italy? Why use a Jewish moneylender as a villain? Shakespeare probably never met a Jew in his life--they had been banished from England centuries earlier.

3. Consider Antonio's character? Is he straightforward and virtuous, as he claims? How accurately does his character reflect the general nature of the Christians in this play?

4. How do you deal with Jessica? The Christians applaud her running off with her father's money to wed a man Shylock disapproves of. Are they correct to feel this way?

5. Why a pound of flesh from nearest the heart? Why not the heart itself? Why not something else? Think about all the possible meanings of the phrase--ie. "pound" is the English form of currency; also, what is nearest the heart spiritually?

Some important works of Shakespeare: 1) Comedies: The Comedy of Errors, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew, Love’s Labour’s Lost, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Much Ado about Nothing (无事生非), As You Like It (皆大欢喜), Twelfth Night, The Merry Wives of Windsor, All’s well That Ends Well(终成眷属), Measure for Measure (一报还一报). His comedies bring us into happy and ideal worlds with singing, dancing, harmony with nature and freedom from the vices of the world. 2)Tragedies: Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, Troilus and Cressida. The tragedies are of astonishing variety in presentment, dramatic movement, and in characterization. The characters differ in age, sex, state of life, virtues and vices, but all of them show distinctive marks even if their parts are very short. 3)Tragicomedies: Cymbeline, The Winter’s Tale, The Tempest. In his romances, he escapes from the reality to seek comfort in his dream. 4) Histories: Henry IV, Henry VI. Shakespeare wrote 9 plays that were based on the history of England. In these plays he covered the history of 300 years, and expressed his wish for peace and unity and the resolution to fight the enemy to the bitter end.

莎士比亚诗歌的两个主题：时光不饶人，青春和美丽是短暂的；只有诗歌才有力量使美丽与爱情永存。

译文：(theme: 只有文学可与时间抗衡)

一八

我怎么能够把你来比作夏天？

你不独比它可爱也比它温婉：

狂风把五月宠爱的嫩蕊作践，

夏天出赁的期限又未免太短：

天上的眼睛有时照得太酷烈，

它那炳耀的金颜又常遭掩蔽：

被机缘或无常的天道所摧折，

没有芳艳不终于雕残或销毁。

但是你的长夏永远不会雕落，

也不会损失你这皎洁的红芳，

或死神夸口你在他影里漂泊，

当你在不朽的诗里与时同长。

只要一天有人类，或人有眼睛，

这诗将长存，并且赐给你生命。

Answers for reference:

I. 1. Nobody can predict what he will dream of after he falls asleep.

2.Death is so mysterious that nobody knows what death will bring to us. Maybe bitter sufferings,

great pains, heartbreak ing stories…

3.Conscience and over-considerations. He wants to revenge, but doesn‘t know how. He wants to

kill his uncle, but finds it too risky. He lives in despair and wants to commit suicide. However, he knows if he dies, nobody will comfort his father‘s ghost. He is in face of great dilemma. II. 1. Sun.

2. They would give up their names for love‘s sake.

3. Only if you are kind to me, their hatred cannot hurt me.

Unit 3 Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Goals and Purposes

To let the students get to know sth about Francis Bacon

To let the students understand the whole essay of Of Studies

Main Contents

The background of the author‘s time

Francis Bacon‘s life story

The appreciation of Of Studies

Keys and Obstacles

To understand the popular sayings by Francis Bacon

To get to know the writing style of Francis Bacon

Teaching Methods and Strategies

Open questions and answers in class

Translation of some key sentences

Main Body

I. background

If the imaginative powers of literary creation of English Renaissance found their expression in the poetry of Spenser and the drama of Shakespeare, the intellectual energy of this age showed itself in the achievement of Francis Bacon, the founder of modern science in England. Bacon, a philosopher, scientist and essayist, lays the foundation for modern science with his insistence on scientific way of thinking and fresh observation rather than authority as a basis for obtaining knowledge. Bacon was a public figure and statesman of importance under both Elizabeth and James, rising to the high post of Lord Chancellor (the highest judge 大法官). He devoted his later life wholly to literature and scholarship. His Essays is the first example of the genre in English literature, which has been recognized as an important landmark in the development of English prose. First published in1597, it contained 10 short essays. Later more were added until finally 58 essays were included. Bacon‘s essays are famous for their brevity, compactness, and powerfulness. These essays cover a wide variety of subjects concerning various aspects of life, such as love, truth, friendship, parents and children, beauty, studies, riches, youth and age, garden, death, and many others. They have won popularity for their precision, clearness, brevity and force. Almost on every subject Bacon had something original and interesting to say. Many of his sentences have become wise old sayings—―Men fear death as children fear to go in the dark.‖ ―Studies serve for delight.‖ ―Reading makes a full man; conf erence a ready man; and writing an exact man.‖ ―Knowledge is power.‖ ―No pleasure is comparable to the standing upon the vantage-ground of truth.‖ ―A good name is like a precious ointment （油膏）; it fills all around about, and will not easily away; for the odours of ointments are more durable than those of flowers.‖, to give only a few. Bacon had a wide range of knowledge. He divides knowledge into two kinds. One is the knowledge obtained fro m the Divine Revelation, the other is the knowledge from the workings of human mind. According to Bacon, man‘s understanding consists of three parts: history to man‘s memory, poetry to man‘s imagination and creation, and philosophy to man‘s reason.

Of Studies is the most popular of Bacon‘s 58 essays. It analyses what studies chiefly serve for, the different ways adopted by different people to pursue studies, and how studies exert influence

over human character. Forceful and persuasive, compact and precise, Of Studies reveals to us Bacon‘s mature attitude towards learning.

II. Translation:

Of Studies

Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability, is in the judgement and disposition of business.

读书足以怡情，足以傅彩，足以长才。其怡情也，最见于独处幽居之时；其傅彩也，最见于高谈阔论之中；其长才也，最见于处世判事之际。

For expert and execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of affairs, come best form those that are learned. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; to make judgement wholly by their rules, is the humour of a scholar.

练达之士虽能分别处理细事或一一判别枝节，然纵观统筹，全局策划，则舍好学深思者莫属。读书费时过多易惰，文采藻饰太盛则矫，全凭条文断事乃学究故态。

They perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need proving by study; and studies themselves do give forth directions too much at large, except they be bounded in b y experience.

读书补天然之不足，经验又补读书之不足，盖天生才干犹如自然花草，读书然后知如何修剪移接，而书中所示，如不以经验范之，则又大而无当。

Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation.

有一技之长者鄙读书，无知者羡读书，唯明智之士用读书，然书并不以用处告人，用书之智不在书中，而在书外，全凭观察得之。

Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider.

读书时不可存心诘难读者，不可尽信书上所言，亦不可只为寻章摘句，而应推敲细思。

Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; el se distilled books are, like common distilled waters, flashy things.

书有可浅尝者，有可吞食者，少数则须咀嚼消化。换言之，有只需读其部分者，有只须大体涉猎者，少数则须全读，读时须全神贯注，孜孜不倦。书亦可请人代读，取其所作摘要，但只限题材较次或价值不高者，否则书经提炼犹如水经蒸馏，淡而无味。

Reading maketh a full man；conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write little，he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had need have a present wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cunning, to seem to know that he doth not.

maketh: make的第三人称用法ready: 即ready-witted，指敏于思考的能力。

doth: do的第三人称单数用法

读书使人充实，讨论使人机智，笔记使人准确。因此不常做笔记者须记忆力特强，不常讨论者须天生聪颖，不常读书者须欺世有术，始能无知而显有知。

Histories make men wise; poets witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend. Abeunt studia in morse.

读史使人明智，读诗使人灵秀，数学使人周密，科学使人深刻，伦理学使人庄重，逻辑修辞之学使人善辩；

凡有所学，皆成性格。

Nay there is no stand or impendiment in the wit, but may be wrought out by fit studies: like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the head; and the like. So if a man\'s wit be wandering, let him study the mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish o r find differences, let him study the schoolmen; for they are cymini sectores. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers\'cases. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt.

人之才智但有滞碍，无不可读适当之书使之顺畅，一如身体百病，皆可借相宜之运动除之。滚球利睾肾，射箭利胸肺，慢步利肠胃，骑术利头脑，诸如此类。如智力不集中，可令读数学，盖演题需全神贯注，稍有分散即须重演；如不能辩异，可令读经院哲学，盖是辈皆吹毛求疵之人；如不善求同，不善以一物阐证另一物，可令读律师之案卷。如此头脑中凡有缺陷，皆有特效可医。