[学习]二叉树的概念和术语

词汇学的基本知识

词汇学的基本知识 词汇学是研究词语的学问，它是传统语言学（语法、语音、词汇）的一个分支。词汇学的 主要研究的内容是：词的性质、词的构成、词义的本质及发展、词的各种关系（同音、同 义、反义等）。 一、什么是词 词是有意义的能够独立运用的造句的最小单位，它具有固定的语音形式。汉语词的划分有一 定的困难，因为在书写时词和词之间是不分开的。就“独立运用”而言，许多虚词和量词是 不能独立运用的。于是增加了一条补充，一句话中把能独立运用的词划分出去，剩写的也是词。如：“我把这本书包了个书皮。”这个句子中的“本”“个”和“把”也是词。汉语中词 和短语的界限也不很清楚。一般可以用扩展插入法来区分。能插入的是短语，不能插入的是 词（意义不能变）。比如：钢笔——钢的笔、白菜——白的菜、白布——白的布、吃饭——吃 了饭、鸡蛋——鸡的蛋、睡觉——睡不睡觉。“钢笔”不能插入词，“白菜”插入后意思变了，它们肯定是词。“白布”可以插入且意思不变，可以做为短语。“吃饭”可以插入，“鸡蛋”可 以插入，但“鸡蛋”的频度很高，可以把它做为词。睡觉可以插入，但两个语素的组合是固 定的，把这类词做为离合词（理发、洗澡、打仗等）。 一个语素（有意义的汉字）能独立运用就是词。（米、吃、红、个、从） 两个语素组合后，意义不是它们的简单相加，就是词。（钢笔、金鱼、） 两个语素组合后，不能扩展插入词，就是词。（钢笔，白菜） 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们是不能用别的语素替换的，则是一种特殊的词 ——离合词。 两个语素组合后，虽能扩展插入词，但它们的使用频度很高，且大家约定俗成认为它是词。（“鸡蛋”是词、“鹰蛋”就有人认为是短语）。 综上所述，汉语的词与短语之间的界限是有模糊地带的。 人们对客观世界的认识形成了概念，词是反映概念的，但它们之间的关系不是一一对应的。 比如，“月亮”、“月球”对应的是一个概念，“人民”这个词可以对应不同的概念。 二、现代汉语词汇的构成 词汇由词和固定的短语——熟语、谚语等构成。 词可以从不同的角度分类： 1.语法分类——实词、虚词（词类） 2.结构分类——单纯词、合成词 3.音节分类——单音节词、多音节词 4.常用——常用词汇（基本词汇）、一般词汇 5.口语词汇——书面词汇 6.普通话词汇——方言词汇 7.汉语词汇——外来语词汇 8.古词语——新词语 熟语可以包括成语、谚语、歇后语等。成语表意凝炼、形象，在书面语中广泛运用。它来源 于古代的典故，有的选取原句中最能概括原句意思的成分（乘风破浪——愿乘长风，破万里浪），有的用四个字概括寓言、故事等（刻舟求剑、狐假虎威），有的增加个别字（短兵相接——车错毂兮短兵接）。成语的意思有的是语素义的简单相加（汗流浃背、无稽之谈、自圆其说）；多数成语的意思不是语素义的相加，有的意思是约定俗成的（高山流水——表示知己知音），有的是取字面的比喻义（水落石出——比喻真相毕露了）。

数据结构_实验1_线性表的基本操作

实验1 线性表的基本操作 一、需求分析 目的： 掌握线性表运算与存储概念，并对线性表进行基本操作。 1.初始化线性表； 2.向链表中特定位置插入数据； 3.删除链表中特定的数据； 4.查找链表中的容； 5.销毁单链表释放空间； 二、概要设计 ●基础题 主要函数： 初始化线性表InitList（List* L，int ms） 向顺序表指定位置插入元素InsertList（List* L，int item，int rc）删除指定元素值的顺序表记录DeleteList1(List* L,int item) 删除指定位置的顺序表记录 DeleteList2（List* L,int rc） 查找顺序表中的元素 FindList（List L，int item） 输出顺序表元素OutputList（List L） 实验步骤： 1，初始化顺序表 2，调用插入函数 3，在顺序表中查找指定的元素 4，在顺序表中删除指定的元素 5，在顺序表中删除指定位置的元素 6，遍历并输出顺序表 ●提高题

要求以较高的效率实现删除线性表中元素值在x到y（x和y自定义）之间的所有元素 方法： 按顺序取出元素并与x、y比较，若小于x且大于y，则存进新表中。 编程实现将两个有序的线性表进行合并，要求同样的数据元素只出现一次。 方法： 分别按顺序取出L1，L2的元素并进行比较，若相等则将L1元素放进L中，否则将L 1，L2元素按顺序放进L。 本程序主要包含7个函数 主函数main() 初始化线性表InitList（List* L，int ms） 向顺序表指定位置插入元素InsertList（List* L，int item，int rc）删除指定元素值的顺序表记录DeleteList1(List* L,int item) 删除指定位置的顺序表记录 DeleteList2（List* L,int rc） 查找顺序表中的元素 FindList（List L，int item） 输出顺序表元素OutputList（List L） 提高题的程序 void Combine(List* L1,List* L2,List* L) void DeleteList3(List* L,int x,int y) 二、详细设计 初始化线性表InitList（List* L，int ms） void InitList(List* L,int ms) { L->list=(int*)malloc(LIST_INIT_SIZE*sizeof(int)); L->size=0; L->MAXSIZE=LIST_INIT_SIZE;

词汇学复习整理

Chapter 1 LEXICOLOGY: Lexicology is the science of words, which is concerned with the study of vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, the origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words. Chapter 2 1.The history of English language History of English language can be divided into Old English(450AD-1150AD), Middle English (1150AD-1500AD), and Modern English (1500AD-present). 2.Classification of English words English words can be divided into different groups in terms of the origin, the level of usage and the notion. By origin Native words (Anglo-Saxon/ old English) Loan words (borrowed) By level of usage: 5 categories Standard/ popular word/ common words Literary words Colloquial words Slang words Technical words By notion Content words: They have the independent lexical meaning, e.g. noun, verb, adjective, adverb. Function words: They are determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries, and grammatical signals, functional makers. Pick up the slang words and explain. 1.Father said nix to our plan, so we couldn’t go to the museum. (nothing, no) 2.When the buck leads, the world suffers. (money, dollars) 3.He says he’ll be a great writer but that’s a lot of boloney; he’ll never be. (nonsense) 4.I’ll clobber you if you don’t do what you’re told, said the angry father. (beat sb. repeatedly) 5.I think I’m just a hick at heart. (a foolish person from the country) 6.He thought his idea was wonderful, but in fact, it was complete rot. (nonsense) Chapter 3 Compounding: refers to the faculty and device of language to form new words by combining or putting together old words, e.g. schoolboy. Derivation: derivation is "Used to form new words, as with happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. Conversion: the creation of word from an existing word without any change in form, e.g. the adjective clean becomes the verb clean.

英语词汇学考试重点整理

Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by

线性表类型定义

线性表 顺序表 语言级上的类型定义描述 const maxsize=顺序表的容量: typedef struct {datatype data[maxsize]; int last; }sqlist; sqlist L; 基本运算的实现 1.插入 void insert_sqlist(sqlist L,datatype x,int i) 2.删除 void delete_sqlist(sqlist L,int i); 3.定位 int locate_sqlist(sqlist L,datatype X) 4.求表长 5.读表元 单链表 语言级上的类型定义描述 typedef struct node *pointer;

struct node {datatype data; pointer next; }; typedef pointer lklist; 基本运算的实现 1.初始化 lklist initiate_lklist() 2.求表长 int length_lklist(lklist head) 3.按序号查找 pointer find_lklist(lklist head,int i) 4.定位 int locate_lklist(lklist head,datatype x) 5.删除 void delete_lklist(lklist head,int i) 6.插入 void insert_lklist(lklist head,datatype x,int i) 7.建表 lklist create_lklist1() 8.清除重复结点

void purge_lklist(lklist head) 双链表 语言级上的类型定义描述typedef struct dnode *dpointer; struct dnode {datatype data; dpointer prior,next; } typedef dpointer dlklist; 串 语言级上的类型定义描述const maxlen=串的最大长度; typedef struct

词汇学知识点总结

Language Language is a system of symbol based on physiology, psychology, and physics. It’s a special social action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society. The relationship between Language, Society, and Thought: 1. any language reflects the culture of the society in a particular period. Therefore language is the mirror reflecting the culture of a society. 2. Language is a product of society. Language is inseparable from human society. 3. Language is used as a means of communication in a society. Outside society there is no language. 4. Society depends upon language for its existence. For example, there are many words connected with carriage. Buggy, a light one-horse carriage with two wheels. Coach, a large closed four-wheel horse-drawn carriage. 5. moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is indispensable from society. We know that language is used to express man’s thought. The process of thinking is closely connected with language. That is to say, without thinking, there would be no human language. 6. language serves society as a means of intercourse between people. Linguistics is the scientific study of language. The scope of linguistics include phonology, syntax, semantics, phonetics, philology, lexicology, stylistics, general linguistics, descriptive linguistics…… Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning, and application. Aim of English Lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. It offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. The significance of English Lexicology: help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use the words. Two approaches to the study of English Lexicology: synchronic and diachronic. Synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one period of time. Diachronic means concerned with the historical development of a language. For example: January, February, march, synchronically, they are the words of the months of one year. Diachronically, they are all borrowed words. Synchronically, we consider words like eventful, talkative as derivatives. Diachronically, they are hybrids, that is, words that are made of two parts, each from a different language. Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words and their meanings. Significance: 1.to provides background information and knowledge about the history, origin and development of the English language. 2. To increase the learner’s enjoyment and real understanding of English words from their changes of forms including their spelling and pronunciation to that of meanings. English is classified as a Teutonic language, that is, a Germanic language. English belongs to the Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Division of the history of the English language: 1. the period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It’s described as the period of full inflection. 2. The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period, also as the period of leveled inflections. 3. The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period, also as the period of lost inflection. There are two classes of language in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of word in a sentence largely by means of inflection. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, preposition or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflection. Old English the a synthetic language, while Modern English is an analytic language. Modern English can be divided into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period. Dean Swift was a conservative and he opposed the tendency to shorten words, such as ad

(完整word版)英语词汇学复习大纲整理

1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)

英语词汇学基本概念汇总

《英语词汇学》重要术语 One: 1. Native words 本族词 Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words. 2. Loan words 借词 Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words. 3. Slang words 俚语 Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary. 4. Function words 功能词 Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else. 5. Content words 实义词 Content words are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. 6. Free forms 自由形式 Forms which occur as sentences are free forms. Two: 1. Morphemes 语素 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. 2. Allomorphs 语素变体 Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. 3. Free morpheme 自由语素 Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. 4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素 Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. 5. Root 词根 Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. 6. Affix 词缀 Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. 7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. 8. Derivational affix 派生词缀 Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has

CT的基本概念和术语

CT的基本概念和术语 2.2.1体素与像素（Voxel and Pixel） 体素是体积单位。在CT扫描中，根据断层设置的厚度、矩阵的大小，能被CT扫描的最小体积单位。体素作为体积单位，它有三要素，即长、宽、高。通常CT中体素的长和宽都为1mm，高度或深度则根据层厚可分别为10、5、3、2、1mm等。像素又称像元，是构成CT图像最小的单位。它与体素相对应，体素的大小在CT图像上的表现，即为像素。 2.2.2采集矩阵与显示矩阵（Scaning and Displaying Matrix） 矩阵是像素以二维方式排列的阵列，它与重建后图像的质量有关。在相同大小的采样野中，矩阵越大像素也就越多，重建后图像质量越高。目前常用的采集矩阵大小基本为：512′512，另外还有256′256和1024′1024。CT图像重建后用于显示的矩阵称为显示矩阵，通常为保证图像显示的质量，显示矩阵往往是等于或大于采集矩阵。通常采集矩阵为512′512的CT，显示矩阵常为1024′1024。 2.2.3原始数据（Raw Data） 原始数据是CT扫描后由探测器接收到的信号，经模数转换后传送给计算机，其间已转换成数字信号经预处理后，尚未重建成横断面图像的这部分数据被称为原始数据。 2.2.4重建与重组(Reconstruction and Reformation)

原始扫描数据经计算机采用特定的算法处理，最后得到能用于诊断的一幅横断面图像，该处理方法或过程被称为重建或图像的重建。重组是不涉及原始数据处理的一种图像处理方法。如多平面图像重组、三维图像处理等。在以往英文文献中，有关图像的重建的概念也有些混淆，三维图像处理有时也采用重建(reconstruction)一词，实际上，目前CT的三维图像处理基本都是在横断面图像的基础上，重新组合或构筑形成三维影像。由于重组是使用已形成的横断面图像，因此重组图像的质量与已形成的横断面图像有密切的关系，尤其是层厚的大小和数目。一般，扫描的层厚越薄、图像的数目越多，重组的效果就越好。 2.2.5算法、重建函数核与滤波函数(Algorithm, Kernel) 算法是针对特定输入和输出的一组规则。算法的主要特征是不能有任何模糊的含义，所以算法规则描述的步骤必须是简单、易操作并且概念明确，而且能够由机器实施。另外，算法只能执行限定数量的步骤。重建函数核或称重建滤波器、滤波函数。CT的扫描通常需包含一些必要的参数，有的参数可由操作人员选择，有的则不能。重建函数核是一项重要的内容，它是一种算法函数，并决定和影响了图像的分辨力、噪声等等。·在CT临床检查中，可供CT图像处理选择的滤波函数一般可有高分辨力、标准和软组织三种模式，有的CT机除这三种模式外，还外加超高分辨力和精细模式等。·高分辨力模式实际上是一种强化边缘、轮廓的函数，它能提高分辨力，但同时图像的噪声也相应增加。软组织模式是一种平滑、柔和的函数，采用软组织模式处理后，图像的对比度下降，噪声减少，密度分辨力提高。而标准模式则是没有任何强化和柔和作用的一种运算处理方法。

第二章_线性表(参考答案)

第二章线性表 一、填空题 1、数据逻辑结构包括线性结构、树型结构、图型结构这三种类型，树形结构和图形结构合称为非线性结构。 2、在线性结构中，第一个结点没有前驱结点，其余每个结点有且只有个前驱结点，最后一个结点没有后续结点，其余每个结点有且只有一个后续结点。 3、在顺序表中插入或删除一个元素，需要平均移动一半元素，具体移动的元素个数与插入或删除的位置有关。 4、在顺序表中，逻辑上相邻的元素，其物理位置一定相邻。在单链表中，逻辑上相邻的元素，其物理位置不一定相邻。 5、在带头结点的非空单链表中，头结点的存储位置由头指针指示，首元素结点的存储位置由头结点的next域指示，除首元素结点外，其它任一元素结点的存储位置由其直接前趋结点的next域指示。 6、阅读下列算法，并补充所缺内容。 void purge_linkst( ListNode *& la ) { // 从头指针为 la 的有序链表中删除所有值相同的多余元素，并释放被删结点空间ListNode *p,*q; if(la==NULL) return; q=la; p = la->link; while (p) { if (p && ___(1)p->data!=q->data___) {q=p; p = p->link;} else { q->link= ___(2)p->link___; delete(p); p=___(3)q->link___; } }//while }// purge_linkst 二、选择题 1、在数据结构中，从逻辑上可以把数据结构分成 C。 A、动态结构和静态结构 B、紧凑结构和非紧凑结构 C、线性结构和非线性结构 D、内部结构和外部结构 2、线性表的逻辑顺序与存储顺序总是一致的，这种说法 B。 A、正确 B、不正确 3、线性表若采用链式存储结构时，要求内存中可用存储单元的地址D。 A、必须是连续的 B、部分地址必须是连续的 C、一定是不连续的 D、连续或不连续都可以 4、在以下的述叙中，正确的是B。 A、线性表的线性存储结构优于链表存储结构 B、二维数组是其数据元素为线性表的线性表 C、栈的操作是先进先出 D、队列的操作方式是先进后出 三、综合题 1、已知L是无表头结点的单链表，且P结点既不是首元结点，也不是尾元结点，试从下列提供的答案中选择合适的语句序列。 A、在P结点后插入S结点的语句序列是（（4）、（1））； B、在P结点前插入S结点的语句序列是（（7）、（11）、（8）、（4）、（1））； C、在表首插入S结点的语句序列是（（5）、（12））；

词汇学复习重点(精心挑选整理过的)

Motivation of words分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,) Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created. Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 3.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 4.What are the characteristics of antonyms? 1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 5.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning 6.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes 7.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy). 8.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less 9.Definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was