四年级下册英语专项训练-汉译英、英译汉_外研版(最新版)
期末复习-四年级英语
专项练习4-汉译英、英译汉
1.在周一____________
2.每天____________
3.非常____________
4.用英语____________
5．第一天____________6.七天____________
7.周二____________8.周三____________
9.周四____________10.这个周末____________
11.在周五____________12.音乐课____________
13.今天上午____________14.画画____________
15.制作一本书____________16.看望我奶奶____________ 17.擅长做某事_______________18.这个周末______________ 19.唱歌跳舞_______________20.一个练习本_____________ 21.三个铅笔盒______________22.野餐_______________ 23．一些香肠_______________24.去公园_______________ 25.去游泳_______________26.对…感兴趣______________ 27.北京游乐园_______________28.长城_______________ 29.一些三明治_______________30.旅行_______________ 31．去滑滚轴_______________32.去公园_______________ 33.回家_______________34.明天早上_______________
35.乘缆车_______________36.步行_______________
37.来这里_______________38.到达那里_______________
39.问问题_______________40.去滑冰_______________
41.一位新教师____________42.一位高个学生_____________ 43.一支短铅笔____________44.两支长铅笔______________
45.一个小鸡蛋____________45.一大块汉堡包____________
46.一本数学书____________46.一位语文教师____________ 47．两位英语老师_________48.美术和音乐____________
49.牛奶和可乐____________50.回家____________
51.inaweek_____________52.achaingame_____________
53.thefirstday_________54.onSunday______________
55.thismorning_________56.thenextday_____________
57.listenandtalk_____________58.singandplay_________________ 59.aniceday_______________60.actasabear________________ 61.manyclasses____________62.makeakite_________________
大学英语精读4英译汉练习答案
TEST YOURSELF 1 16.他们竭尽全力把新闻泄漏(news leakage)的后果减少到最低限度。 They went to great lengths to minimize the consequence of the news leakage. 17.你理应懂得不该积下这么多的债务。 17. You should have known better than to accumulate such large amounts of debt. 18.不管是谁想出这么奇妙的主意，他都应该有权在这个委员会上获得一个席位。 18. Whoever conceived the marvelous idea is entitled to a seat on the committee. 19.如果你从现在起每个月存上几块钱，不到30岁你就有一笔可观的存款可用了。 19.If you deposit a few dollars/bucks every month from now on, you'll have considerable savings to draw on before you reach 30. 20. 那个经济学家说如果利率调高几个点经济就会放缓，我看这是夸张。 … 20. I think the economist was exaggerating when he said the economy would slow down if the interest rates were raised a few points. 11.当朱莉娅·罗伯茨出现在舞台上向观众讲话时，大家热烈鼓掌，接着，照相机的灯光闪个不停。 11. When Julia Roberts appeared on the stage to address the audience, there was hearty applause followed by flashing cameras. 12.因为从来没有接触过高维的概念，讨论中使用的这些新术语把他弄得糊里糊涂。 12. Never having been exposed to the concept of higher dimensions, he was baffled by all the new terms used in the discussion. 13.人类为稳定环境要做的努力决非仅仅是减少排放到大气里的二氧化碳的数量。 13. Man's endeavor to stabilize the environment entails much more than simply reducing the amount of carbon dioxide poured into the atmosphere. 14. 如果人们被剥夺了有意义的工作，他们将会失去自己的个性意识。 14. If people are deprived of any meaningful employment, they will lose their sense of identity. 15. 人类在追求更好的生活条件的时候，应该约束自己不要毁灭其他的物种。 】 15. Man should refrain from destroying other species in his pursuit of better living conditions. 16.如果我们将这些奇妙的主意付诸实施，我们就会在工作中取得给人以深刻印象的进步。 If we put these fantastic ideas to work, we will make impressive in our work. 17.如果你作此让步，你不久就会为此付出代价。 If you make the concession, you’ll soon have to pay foe it. 18.他视力不好，致使他没有能看到远处的小孩。 His poor vision contributed to his failure to spot the child in the distance. 19.我们正在设法想出解决这些紧迫问题的办法。 We are trying to figure out a solution to these urgent problems. 20.政府正在采取这些措施，希望将飞涨的房价降下来。 — The government is taking these measures in hopes of bringing down the soaring price of houses.
四年级英语预习单
四年级____班姓名_________ 汉译英 蛋糕脸名字制作 读一读 1.We have a new classroom. 2.Really What's in the classroom Let's go and see! 3.Where is it It's near the window. 小学英语（PEP）四年级上册Unit 1 自主预习单 四年级____班姓名_________ 英译汉 Open the Turn on the Close the up the Clean the 练一练 1.Let's clean the classroom! Ok. 2.Let me clean the teacher's desk. 3.Let me help you. Thank you.
四年级____班姓名_________ 汉译英 喜欢风筝数字5 数字9 米饭 读一读 1.What's in your schoolbag 2.An English book,a maths book,three storybooks and… 3.It's a fat panda! 小学英语（PEP）四年级上册Unit 2 自主预习单 四年级____班姓名_________ 英译汉 Put your Chinese book in your Put your pencil box on your English Put your maths book in your Put your eraser near your pencil 练一练 1.Excuse lost my schoolbag. 2.What colour is it Ok. 3.Here it is! Thank you so much!
大学英语翻译技巧 7
第七单元句子的翻译（3） 真实、虚拟条件句和否定句的翻译 第一部分：英语中真实条件句和虚拟条件句的翻译 一. 真实条件句的翻译 在真实条件句中，说话人或把条件视为事实，或仅仅提出条件，不作任何主观设想，如果条件实现，主句内容便成为事实；如果条件不实现，结果也就不会发生。译成分句即可。 例如： ·If the weather is not good, I shall stay at home. 如果天气不好，我将呆在家里。 ·Unless the weather is good, I shall stay at home. 如果天气不好，我将呆在家里。 ·I will stay at home providing /provided/ on condition(that) the weather is not good. 假如天气不好，我就呆在家里。 ·I will stay at home only if the weather is not good. 如果天气不好，我只好呆在家里。 ·I will stay at home if only the weather is not good. 只要天气不好，我就呆在家里。 ·Given bad weather, I will stay at home. 假使天气不好，我就呆在家里。 ·Suppose we can’t get the necessary equipment, what shall we do? 假设我们弄不到必要的设备，那我们怎么办？ ·As long as we don’t lose heart, we’ll find a way to overcome the difficulty. 只要我们不灰心，我们就能找到克服困难的方法。 ·Granted that this is true, what conclusion can you draw? 就算这是实际情况，你又能得出什么结论呢？ ·Send us a message in case you have any difficulty. 万一有什么困难请给我们一个信。 ·We’ll let you use the room on condition that you keep it clean. 我们可以让你们用这个房间，如果你们能保持清洁的话。 ·She would have fallen but that I caught her. 要不是我抓住她，她就摔倒了。 ·He is a quite conscientious man so far as I know. 据我所知，他是一个很负责的人。 二. 虚拟条件句的翻译 1.用“早”“本来”“原先”“当初”译出虚拟语气。 例如：
研究生英语汉译英
我们整个经济的发展战略，能源、交通是重点，农业也是重点。农业的发展一靠政策，二靠科学。科学技术的发展和作用是无穷无尽的。 Our strategy f or developing the econom y as a whole gives priorit y to energy, comm unication and agriculture. Agricultural develo pm ent depends f irst on policy and second o n science. T here are no lim its to the develo pm ent of science and technolo gy经济活动对环境有着潜在的威胁，对此人们已经有了进一步的认识。目前在一些国家已经有了一些组织，负责督促政府、企业甚至个人，无论干什么首先要有环境意识。现在人们已经不再把环境保护看成是可做可不做的事情了。 T here has been considerable progress in recog nizin g the poten tial threats t o the environm ent that econom ic activity poses. Nowadays, there are already som e environm ental grou ps ens uring t hat go vernm ents, f irm s and even individ uals rarely act without consi dering the environm ental consequences of their actions. Enviro nm ental issues are now no longer consi dered m arginal. 在这个国家的历史上，教育从来没有像现在这样对我们如此重要。从能源危机到环境污染，从生活水平的提高到空间探索，即将到来的21世纪充满了种种挑战。要战胜那些挑战，不论怎样，在很大程度上取决于教育的质量。Never in the nat ion’s hi story has it s educati on been s o im portant as n ow. From energy crises to air polluti on,and f rom the im provem ent of the standard of living to space ex ploration, the approaching world of the 21st century is f ull of challenges whose resolu tio n, f or better or worse,will depend largely on the qual ity of education. 中国的环境教育起步较晚，它是随着中国环境保护事业的发展而发展起来的。中国是一个发展中国家，但与工业化国家一样面临着较大范围，较大规模的经济开发活动，同时人口压力较大，环境保护和生态平衡问题引起了政府、人民以及科技与教育工作者的极大关注。 China’s enviro nm ental education started only quite recently and it has been growing in conf orm ity with the developm ent of China’s env ironm ental protectio n. As a developi ng cou ntry, China is engaged in econom ic activities o n a scale as large as that in the industrialized coun tries.Meanwhile,it is also ex periencing the pressure of a huge population.T he issue of environm ental protection and balanced ecology has aroused great concern f rom the governm ent, the ordinary people and the peop le in the f ields of technology and educatio n. 在我们的社会里，一个人的成功还是以他的收入来衡量的。人们要求增加收入，就像希望较高的收入能带来舒适的生活一样，实则是希望获得成功。因此，不管工作如何枯燥乏味，只要能出人头地，他是能够忍受下去的。 In our society, success is s till m easured by incom e. And the desire that m en feel to increase their incom e is quite as m uch a desire f or success as f or a comf ortable life, which a higher incom e can bring.No matter how dull the work m ay be, it becom es bearable if it is a m eans of building up a reputatio n. 为了接待每年数以万计的外国游客，我国旅游部门正在想方设法改善旅游住宿设施。许多地区正在开发新的旅游中心，兴建更多的现代化宾馆，培训更多的外语导游，以适应日益发展的旅游业的需要。 T o receive m illion s of f oreign visitors annually, China’s touri sm departm ents are trying every poss ible m eans to im prove accomm odation f or tourists.In m any places, new tourist centers are being ex ploited, m ore and m ore m odern hotels are being set up and f oreign-language-speaki ng touri st gui des being trained s o as to suit the growin g dem ands of tourism industry. 我们的国家要走向现代化，最大的障碍并不是资源问题，也不是资金问题，更不是技术问题，而是十几亿人口的素质问题。资金可以积累，技术可以创造，也可以引进，但是十几亿人口的素质是无法引进的，这必须靠我们去提高。 If our country is to achieve m odernization,the biggest obstacle is not the shortage of natural resources,nor the lack of f unds,still less the problem of technology,but rather the qualit y of the m ore than one billi on peop le, f or f unds can be accum ulated, technolo gy can be created or im ported,but the overall quality of the huge population, which canno t be im ported, m ust only be im proved by ourselves. 振兴科技和繁荣经济，必须坚持教育为本。重点是普及义务教育，积极发展职业教育和成人教育，适度发展高等教育，优化教育结构，逐步形成政府办学为主与社会各界参与办学相结合的新体制。 T he vitality of science and technolog y and the prosperity of econom y m ust be based on education.T he educational system should be im proved in a way that com pulsory education is popu larized, vocational and adult education vigoro usl y strengthened, higher educatio n m oderately developed and educational structure stron gly opt im ized so that a new educational system can be gradually shaped in which education is m ainly run by the governm ent with the help of various circle. 改革开放以来，我国个人收入分配的平均主义逐步被打破，个人收入差距也在逐渐拉开。其中，向合理拉开距离的方向发展是主流。但与此同时，一些不合理的因素也在发展。当前比较突出的是，不同行业之间，不同社会群体之间个人收入的差距在明显拉大，对这些问题要予以高度重视。 Since the im plem entation of the ref orm and the opening-up po licy,China’s equalitariani sm in personal incom e has been gradually losing grou nd with increased disparit y in the incom e of individuals. T houg h the event is gro win g towards a proporti onate trend, a num ber of disproportio nate f actors are also developin g, the m ost striking one being the ever-enlarging disparit y in personal incom e between diff erent occupations and social grou ps.And t his sh ould receive our due attentio n. 要让我们的国产名牌为世界尽可能多的消费者认可，广告创作就必须使用国际共通的语言，而不能局限在自己的传统文化和传统手法之内。优秀的广告会跨越语言文字的障碍，而优秀的创意就是国际语言。 T o make our native-m ade brands recognized by as m any consum ers as possib le, instead of being conf ined to our traditional culture and techniq ues, we should advertise our goals in a way that is understo od to the uni versal comm unity.Brilliantly m ade advertisem ent can surm ount the barrier of language while brilliant creation itself is universal language. 他是我所认识的人中唯一肯指出我对错误并帮助我改正的人。He is the only person I know wh o will po int ou t m y m istakes and help me correct them. 科学家们已经做了无数次实验表明，在改进人的行为方面，表扬比批评有 效得多。Scientists have done countles s ex perim ents to show that praise is f ar m ore effective than criticism in im proving hum an behavior. 他们就更加严厉地惩处犯罪分子地必要性取得了一致的意见，但谈到是否应 该恢复死刑时却出现了意见分歧。T hey agreed on the necessity of punishi ng crim inals m ore severely, but when it cam e to whether the death penalt y shou ld be brough t back,diff erences of opinion occurred. 众所周知，我们的许多问题至少部分地是由于没能交流思想而引起的。It is well kno wn that m any of our problem s are caused in part by f ailure to comm unicate. 如果让我来决定我们是要一个没有自行车地城市呢，还是要一个没有汽车的 城市，我会毫不犹豫地选择后者。If it were lef t to m e to decide whether we should have a city witho ut bi kes or a city witho ut cars, I should not he sitate a m om ent to pref er the latter. 你不必再去多想判断上的那些失误，重要的是尽量避免再犯。T here is no need f or you to dwell on those m istakes in judgm ent any m ore. What is im portant is to try your best to avoi d m aking them once again 当今的大学生，尽管他们努力地想使自己成才，但对未来还是很模糊。 (establish o neself) T oday’s uni versity stu dents are struggling to establis h them selves, but they still have am biguous f eelings about their f uture. 在对一个关键的问题作结论时，如果只相信所谓的专家而不相信自己，不根 据调查的结果，不根据实验的数据，那是在冒险。(run the risk of ;blind f aith in) W e run the risk of m aking critical decisio ns, not on t he basis of what we know, the f indings of investigat ion s,and the data of ex perim ents,but on the basis of blind f aith in prof essed ex perts 有人认为考试是很重要的，但也有人认为考试有不少弊端。所以考试留下了 一个未能解决的问题——考试对教育有什么影响？(open questio n) Som e people think ex am inations are second to no ne, but som e think ex am inations have a lot of disadvantages.Ex am inations leave us an open essential quest ion－w hat inf luence do exam inations ex ert on education. 他不但是位出色的银行家和公认的贸易专家，而且还是位经验丰富的企业主 管。 He is an ex perienced banker and an acknow ledged trade ex pert, not to m ention an ex cellent m anaging director. 由于经济不景气，房地产经纪人正处于或降低房价或减少销售量的两难境 地。 Because of the econom ic depression,real estate agents are in the dilemm a of whether to lower prices or let sales f all off. 汽车轮子给我们带来了更好、更为便利地交通时，它也应该对诸如空气污染、 交通事故、交通拥挤之类的许多问题负责。(be guilty f or) While wheels have brou ght wit h them better or m ore convenient transportat ion,they are guilty of m any sins,such as air polluti on,traff ic accidents and traff ic congestion. 美国人对汽车的热爱以及他们较大的工作流动性是出了名的。(be noted f or) Am ericans are noted f or their love f or cars and great job m obility. 一个妇女所获得的教育程度越高，就越有可能走出小家庭这个环境，到社会 上去实现自我。(be likely to; realize oneself) T he higher a wom an’s educatio nal attainm ent,the m ore likely she is to go out of the private settin g of the nuclear f am ily and to realize herself in the comm unity. 在一些国家的敦促下，联合国对该过施加压力，迫使其放弃研制和使用核武 器。(pressure sb to do) Urged by som e other countries,the United Natio ns has pressured the country to give up develop ing and us ing nuc lear weapons. 不少大学生更关心怎样在毕业后谋得一份报酬优厚得工作，怎样在这个充满 竞争得社会里迅速得到提升。(be concerned with) Many college students are f ar m ore concerned with how to get a highly-paid job on graduatio n and how to receive a quick prom otion in the com petitive society. 一个有工作的妇女既要照顾她的孩子和老人，又要设法保住这份工作，是一 件非常困难的事。(hold down ) It is a dem anding task f or a working wom an to look af ter her parents and her children while hol din g dow n a job. 大多数自然资源保护主义者认为，在良好的生态环境中人类最易兴旺发达， 而各种野生动物的生存则是这种良好生态环境的标志。(conservationis t; survival) Most conservati oni sts bel ieve that hum ans thrive best in ecol ogical health an d that the sign of this health is the surviva l of a diversity of wild anim als. 人与野生动物之间的差别之一就在于，前者能就他们改变自然的种类及规模 作出明智的选择。（as to） One of the diff erences between hum ans and wild an im als is that/l ies in t hat f orm er can m ake a wise choice as to the kind and scale of the change they m ake to nature. 进到报负，人们往往把它与地位、名誉和权利连在一起，因此，长期以来许 多人不愿意谈论自己的梦想。(identif y with) Am bition is alwa ys iden tif ied with rank, f ame and power. T heref ore m any people have been unwill ing to tal k about their dream s f or s long tim e. 野心常被认为是带有贬义的。这是因为有些一心追求自己利益的人不择手段 地要达到目的，损害了他人。(comm ensurate with; sin gle-m inded) Am bition i s of ten regarded as being com m ensurate with bad sen se because the single-m inded have tried to achieve their goals by f air m eans or f oul and of ten harm others. 不难现象，没有理想与报负的世界会是怎样的。这只会是一个没有进步、 令人厌烦的社会。(shorn of) It is not diff icult to imagine a world shorn of am bition. It would probably be a world with no pro gress and no develo pm ent. And,of course,it would be a tedious world. 所谓理想的好人实际上并不一定对社会有益；人们对好人的标准一直有不同 的看法。 So-called ideally good m en, in f act, are not always of benef it to society and the standards of goodness have lo ng been argued. 1
大学英语精读4汉译英翻译总结
Unit1 1．我知道，不管发生什么情况，我都可以依靠兄弟的支持 2．一般来说，年轻的一代与老一辈不同，他们对现在而不是过去更感兴趣。但这两代人如果不互相尊重对方的需求，就都会遭受损失。 3．中国的书面文字是国家完整统一的一个重要因素。 4．在中国的传统艺术和文学中，竹子和松树往往象征着道德上的正直和刚正不阿。 5．女皇伊丽莎白一世统治英国45年。在她统治时期，国家十分繁荣昌盛。 6．民主意味着多数人来治理；但不仅如此，尊重少数人反对的权利也是民主不可分的一部分。这两条规则同等重要。 7．一个国家不可能强大，除非她不但在地狸上，而且在政治、经济和文化上都是一个整体。 8．晚会十分乏味，所以他就偷偷溜出房间回家了。可是雨后的路非常泥泞，他脚下一滑，掉进了沟里 9．她身体糟糕到了这种程度，以至于冬天都不敢见太阳，怕中暑。 10．有一天晚上，我正在一家小饭馆里借酒浇愁，他突然走了过来，往我手里塞了一沓钞票。
1.诸葛亮装作十分镇静，成功地瞒过了司马懿，使他不知道这座城实际上是没有守卫的空城。他证明了自己值得 受到人们的崇拜和尊敬。 2.他知道大战在即，而且他的军队和敌人众寡悬殊，所以他假装正在迅速往后方撤退。实际上他是在给的敌人准 备一个大陷阱。 3.社会达尔文主义者认为我们可以把人类社会比作动物世界。他们脑袋里似乎没有想过人和动物会有不同。人所 依靠的是他们的头脑，而不是动物本性。 4.这种大规模养殖的鸡和我们以前家养的鸡没法比。现在的养鸡场也许提高了产量，但鸡的美味给弄没了。 5.金融泡沫的最后破灭造成了席卷全球的严重危机。 6.由于我们的价格优势，我们今年向那个地区的出口与去年同期同比增长了30％。 7.记者们有一大堆问题要问，但政府发言人说，她所知道的只是大约30多个持枪的恐怖分子突然闯进剧院的时候 人们正在看话剧。 8.当犯人们突然放声歌唱的时候，监狱长十分恐慌。 9.这个地区遍布工厂，而且整个岛上到处都是度假村。但是已经有迹象表明很多当地百姓将起来反对这种趋势。 10.他宣布，反叛者如果放下武器，就能得到宽恕。
硕士英语 汉译英
汉译英 1.走社会主义道路，就是要逐步实现共同富裕。共同富裕的构想是这样的：一部分地区有条件先发展起来，一部分 地区发展慢点，先发展起来的地区带动后发展的地区，最终达到共同富裕……解决的办法之一，就是先富起来的地区多交点利税，支持贫困地区的发展。 翻译：To take the road of socialism is to realize common prosperity step by step. Our plan is as follow: where conditions permit, some areas may develop faster than others; those that develop faster can help promote the progress of those that lag behind, unti l all become prosperous… One way is for the areas that become prosperous first to support the poor ones by paying more taxes or turning in more profits to the state. 2.要提倡科学，靠科学才有希望。 翻译：We must promote science, for that is where our hope lies. 3.现阶段中国已经实现了粮食基本自给，在未来的发展过程中，中国依靠自己的力量实现粮食基本自给，客观上具 备诸多有利因素 翻译：China has basically achieved self-sufficiency in grain at the present stage, and there are many favorable objective factors for her to maintain such achievement by her own efforts in the course of future development. 4.社会主义中国应该用实践向世界表明，中国反对霸权主义、强权政治，永不称霸。 翻译：Socialist China should show the world through its actions that it is opposed to hegemonism（霸权主义）and power politics and will never seek hegemony. 5.老科学家、中年科学家很重要，青年科学家也很重要。 翻译：Veteran and middle-aged scientists are important, and so are young ones. 6.革命是解放生产力，改革也是解放生产力。 翻译：Revolution means emancipation（解放）of the productive forces, and so does reform. 7.将右腿提放20次。再将左腿提放二十次。 翻译：Lift and lower the right leg for 20 times. Repeat with the left leg. 8.世界在观望。世界在倾听。世界希望看到我们的所作所为。 翻译：The world watches. The world listens. The world waits to see what we will do. 9.过去，只讲在社会主义条件下发展生产力，没有讲还要通过改革解放生产力，不完全。应该把解放生产力和发展 生产力两个讲全了。 翻译：In the past, we only stressed expansion of the productive forces under socialism, without mentioning the need to liberate them through reform. That conception was incomplete. Both the liberation and the expansion of the productive forces are essential. 10.这样好嘛，就是要有创造性。 翻译：That’s good. Creativity is just what we want. 11.对改革开放，一开始就有不同意见，这是正常的。 翻译：In the beginning opinions were divided about the reform and the open policy. That was normal. 12.同时，我们的对外开放采取了多种方式，包括搞经济特区，开放十四个沿海城市。 翻译：In the meantime, we have implemented the policy of opening China to the outside world in many ways, including setting up special economic zones and opening 14 coastal cities. 13.改革开放迈不开步子，不敢闯，说来说去就是怕资本主义的东西多了，走了资本主义道路。要害是姓“资” 还是姓“社”的问题。 翻译：The reason some people hesitate to carry out the reform and the open policy and dare not break new ground is, in essence（本质上）, that they’re afraid it would mean introducing too many elements of capitalism and, indeed(甚至), taking the capitalist road. The crux（关键）of the matter is whether the road is capitalist or socialist. 14.社会主义发展生产力，成果是属于人民的。 翻译：Under socialism, when the productive forces are developed, the result belongs to the people. 15.基本路线要管一百年，动摇不得。 翻译：We should adhere to the basic line for a hundred years, with no vacillation(踌躇，不果断). 16.我们的第一个目标是解决温饱问题，这个目标已经达到了。
英译汉指导：大学英语四级考试翻译练习八
最牛英语口语培训模式：躺在家里练口语，全程外教一对一，三个月畅谈无阻！ 洛基英语，免费体验全部在线一对一课程：https://www.360docs.net/doc/f88804391.html,/ielts/xd.html（报名网址） 练习八 Directions: Read the underlined sentences carefully, and then translate them into Chinese. You may check your answers after you finish them. Passage One As is known to all, the organization and management of wages and salaries are very complex. Generally speaking, the Account Department is responsible for calculations of pay, while the Personnel Department is interested in discussions with the employees about pay. If a firm wants to adopt a new wage and salary structure, it is essential that the firm should decide on a method of job evaluation and ways of measuring the performance of its employees. In order to be successful, that new pay structure will need agreement between Trade Unions and employers. In job evaluation, all of the requirements of each job are defined in a detailed job description. Each of those requirements is given a value, usually in “points”, which are added together to give a total value for the job. For middle and higher management, a special method is used to evaluate managers on their knowledge of the job, their responsibility, and their ability to solve problems. Because of the difficulty in measuring management work, however, job grades for managers are often decided without reference to an evaluation system based on points. In attempting to design a pay system, the Personnel Department should compare the value of each job with those in the job market. It should also consider economic factors such as the cost of living and the labour supply. It is necessary that payment for a job should vary with any differences in the way that job is performed. Where it is simple to measure the work done, as in the work done with the hands, monetary（金钱的）encouragement schemes are often chosen, for indirect workers, where measurement is difficult, methods of additional payments are employed. Passage Two I came across an old country guide the other day. It listed all the tradesmen in each village in my part of the country, and it was impressive to see the great variety of services which were available on one’s own doorstep in the late Victorian countryside. Nowadays a superficial traveller in rural England might conclude that the only village tradesmen still flourishing were either selling frozen food to the inhabitants or selling antiques to visitors. Nevertheless, this would really be a false impression. Admittedly there has been a contraction of village commerce, but its vigor is still remarkable. Our local grocer’s shop, for example, is actually expanding in spite of the competition from supermarkets in the nearest town. Women sensibly prefer to go there and exchange the local news while doing their shopping, instead of queuing up