现代语言学前五章课后习题答案

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of

language. 请解释以下语言学的定义:语言学是对语言的科学研究。

Linguistics investigates not any particular languagebut languages in general.Linguistic study is scientific because it is baxxxxsed on the systematic investigation of authentic language data.No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually usedformulating some hypothesesand testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.

语言学研究的不是任何特定的语言，而是一般的语言。语言研究是科学的，因为它是建立在对真实语言数据的系统研究的基础上的。只有在语言学家做了以下三件事之后，才能得出严肃的语言学结论:观察语言的实际使用方式，提出一些假设，并用语言事实检验这些假设的正确性。

1.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?

语言学的主要分支是什么?他们每个人都研究什么?

Phonetics-How speech sounds are produced and classified

语音学——语音是如何产生和分类的

Phonology-How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning

音系学——声音如何形成系统和功能来传达意义

Morphology-How morphemes are combined to form words

形态学——词素如何组合成单词

Sytax-How morphemes and words are combined to form sentences

句法学-词素和单词如何组合成句子

Semantics-The study of meaning ( in abstraction)

语义学——意义的研究(抽象)

Pragmatics-The study of meaning in context of use

语用学——在使用语境中对意义的研究

Sociolinguistics-The study of language with reference to society

社会语言学——研究与社会有关的语言

Psycholinguistics-The study of language with reference to the workings of the mind

心理语言学:研究与大脑活动有关的语言

Applied Linguistics-The application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning

应用语言学——语言学原理和理论在语言教学中的应用

1.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?

现代语言学与传统语法有何不同?

Modern linguistics is descxxxxriptive;its investigations are baxxxxsed on authenticand mainly spoken language data.

现代语言学是描述性的，它的研究是基于真实的，主要是口语数据。

Traditional grammar is prescxxxxriptive;it is baxxxxsed on “high” written language.

传统语法是指令性的，它是以“高级”书面语言为基础的。

1.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?Why?

现代语言学主要是共时的还是历时的?为什么?

Modern linguistics is mainly synchronicfocusing on the present-day language.Unless the various states of a language are successfully studiedit will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.

现代语言学主要是共时的，侧重于当代语言。除非语言的各种状态已成功地研究，否则就不可能从历时的角度来描述语言。

1.Which enjoys priority in modern linguisticsspeech or writing?Why?

在现代语言学中，口头语和书面语哪个优先?为什么?

Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistic study for the following reasons:

在现代语言学研究中，言语优先于写作，原因如下:

1.Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. 就进化而言，语言先于文字。

2.A larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.

更多的交流是通过口头而不是书面进行的。

1.Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.

言语是幼儿习得母语的形式。

1.How is Saussure’s distinction between language and parole similar to Chomsky’s

distinction between competence and performance?

索绪尔对语言和言语的区分与乔姆斯基对能力和表现的区分有何相似之处?

Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study

索绪尔和乔姆斯基都对抽象语言系统和语言的实际使用进行了区分。他们的目的是把语言系统挑出来进行认真的研究。

1.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a

goodcomprehensive definition of language? 关于语言特征，你认为好的、全面的语言定义应该包括哪些?

Language is a rule-governed system. 受规则支配的系统

Language is basically vocal. 基本上是发声的

Language is arbitrary. 任意的。

Language is used for human communication. 用于人际交往

1.What features of human language have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is

essentially different from any animal communication system?

C.霍克特列出了人类语言的哪些甄别性特征来证明它与任何动物的交流系统在本质上是不同的?

Arbitrariness-no logical connection between meanings and soundsto have an unlimited source of exxxxxpressionsa sign of sophistication only humans are capable of

任意性（武断性）——意思和声音之间没有逻辑联系，有无限的表达来源，这是只有人类才能做到的复杂的标志

Creativity-it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its usersThis is why they can produce and undertand an infinitely large number of sentences.Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send

创造性——它使得用户可以构造和解释新的信号，这就是为什么他们可以产生和理解无限多的句子.动物能够发出的信息非常有限

Duality-（meaningless sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and wordsthen the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences）a feature totally lacking in any animal communication

双重性——(没有意义的声音可以分组和重新组合成大量的意义单位如语素和词然后在更高级别的单位可以安排和重新安排到无限的句子)动物之间完全没有交流的特征

Displacement-language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.No animal can “talk” about things removed from the immediate situation

移位性——语言可以用来指从说话人的直接情景中移出的上下文。任何动物都不能“谈论”脱离当前环境的事物

Cultural trasmission-Details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communication

文化传递——人类语言系统的细节是教和学的，而动物生来就有能力发出某种信号，作为一种有限的交流方式

Chapter 2 Phonology

1.What are the two major media of communication?of the twowhich one is primary and

why? 两种主要的传播媒介是什么?两者中，哪一个是主要的，为什么?

Speech and writing are the two major media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication.

Of the two media of languagespeech is considered primary over writing.The reasons are: Speech is prior to writing in language evolution The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.Speech plays a greater role in daily communicationand speech is the way in which people acquire their native language.

言语和写作是自然语言作为交流工具的两种主要媒介。

在语言的两种媒介中，言语被认为是最主要的。的原因是:

在语言进化过程中，言语先于文字，任何一种语言的书写系统都是使用者在需要时“发明”出来记录言语的。言语在日常交际中起着越来越重要的作用，言语是人们习得母语的方式。

1.What are the three branches of phonetics?How do they contribute to the study of

speech sounds?

语音学的三个分支是什么?它们对语音的研究有何贡献?

Articulatory auditory and acoustic phonetics.

Articulatory phonetics it studies the speech sounds from the speaker’s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.

Auditory phonetics，it studies the speech sounds from the hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.

Acoustic phonetics，it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.

发音语音学它所研究的语音说话人的观点。它研究说话者如何使用他的语言器官来发音。

听觉语音学它所研究的语音听者的观点。它研究的是听者如何感知声音。

声学语音学它通过观察研究了语音声波。它研究语音通过空气从一个人传到另一个人的物理方式。

1.Where are the articulatory apparatus of a human being contained?

人的发音器官在哪里?

In the three cavities: pharyngealoralnasal. 在三个腔:咽、口、鼻。

1.What is voicing and how is it caused?

Voicing is an articulatory dimension of speech sound production.It distinguishes meaning in many languages such as English;therefore it is a phonological feature.

It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.

声音是语音产生的一个发音维度。它在许多语言(如英语)中区分意义，因此它是一种语音特征。

它是由声带的振动引起的。

1.What is the function of the nasal cavity?How does it perform this function?

鼻腔的功能是什么?它是如何执行这个功能的?

To nasalize the sounds that are produced.It does this by closing the air passage connecting the oral and nasal cavities so that the air stream can only go through the nasal cavity.

使产生的声音鼻音化。它通过关闭连接口腔和鼻腔的空气通道来实现这一点，这样气流只能通过鼻腔。

1.Describe the various parts in the oral cavity which are involved in the production of

speech sounds.

The main parts in the oral cavity are lips teeth teeth ridgehard palatesoft

palate(velum)uvulathe back and the blade of the tonguetip of tongue.

1.Explain with examples how broad transcxxxxription and narrow transcxxxxription differ. 举例说明宽式音标和严式音标有何不同。

Broad transcxxxxription-one letter symbol for one sound

宽式音标---一个字母符号代表一个声音

Narrow transcxxxxription-diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.

严式音标----在宽式音标上加变音符号来显示声音的细微差别

1.How are the English consonants classified? 英语辅音是如何分类的?

Two ways to classify consonants: by manner of articulation and by place of articulation.

辅音的两种分类方法:发音方式和发音位置。

1.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels? 英语元音的分类标准是什么?

2.Position of the tonguei.e.the part of the tongue that is held highest.

3.Openness of the mouth

4.Length of the sound.

5.Shape of the lips

https://www.360docs.net/doc/fd19180228.html,xity of the glottis.

(1)舌头的位置，即舌头的最高点。

(2)嘴巴张开度

(3)声音的长度。

(4)嘴唇的形状

(5)声门松弛度。

1.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descxxxxriptions:

给出下列每一种声音描述的语音符号

1.Voiced palata affricate d?

浊音腭塞

1.Voiceless labiodental fricative f

清音唇齿音摩擦

1.Voiced alveolar stop d

浊音齿槽音爆破音

1.Frontcloseshort i

前，闭，短

1.Backsemi-openlong o:

后，半开，长

1.Voicelessbilabial stop p

清音，双唇音，爆破音

Give the phonetic feature of each of the following sounds:

1.［d］voiced alveolar stop 浊音齿槽音爆破音

2.［l］Alveolar liquids lateral 齿槽音流音边音

3.［t?］voiceless palatal affricates 清音上颚音破擦音

4.［w］ glides bilabial 滑音双唇音

5.［u］back close short 后闭短

6.［?］front open 前开

1.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?

语音学和音韵学的研究重点有何不同?

Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between say ［l］and ［?］［p］and ［ph］a phonetician or a phonologist?why?

你认为谁会更感兴趣来区别［l］and ［?］［p］and ［ph］，语言学者或音韵学者，为什么? Phonetics: descxxxxription of all speech sounds and their fine differences.

Phonology: descxxxxription of sound system of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.

A phonetician would be more interested in such differences because such differences will not cause differences in meaning.

语音学:对所有语音及其细微差别的描述。

音韵学:描述特定语言的声音系统，以及声音如何区分意义。

语音学家对这些差异更感兴趣，因为这些差异不会导致意义上的差异。

1.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoeme?How are allophones related to a

phoneme?

语音是什么?它和音素有什么不同?变声词与音素有什么关系?

Phone----a speech sound a phonetic unit语音发音，语音单位

Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound featuresa phonological unit.

音素——一组抽象的声音特征，一个音位单位。

Allophones---actual realizations of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.

音位变体——音素在不同语音环境中的实际实现。

1.What is a minimal pair and what is a minimal set?Why is it important to identify the

minimal set in a language?

什么是最小对，什么是最小集?为什么在语言中识别最小集很重要?

Minimal pair—Two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.

Minimal set—A group of sound combinations with the above feature.

By identifying the minimal pairs or the minimal set of a languagea phonologist can identify its phonemes.

最小对—两个声音组合，除了在相同位置出现的一个声音元素外，其他各方面都相同。

最小集——一组具有上述特征的声音组合。

通过识别一种语言的最小对或最小集，音素学家可以识别它的音素。

1.Explain with examples the sequential rulethe assimilation ruleand the deletion rule.

举例说明序列规则、同化规则和省略规则。

Sequential rule—rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language

For exampleif a word begins with a [l] or a [r]then the next sound must be a vowel.

Another exampleif three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a wordthe combination should obey the following three rules:

1.the first phoneme must be [s]

2.the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/

3.the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/

words like spring[spri?] strict [strikt] splendid [splendid] square[skwe?]

在特定语言中控制声音组合的序列规则

例如，如果一个单词以[l]或[r]开头，那么下一个音必须是元音。

另一个例子，如果三个辅音在一个单词的开头聚在一起，组合应该遵循以下三个规则:

(1)第一个音素必须是[s]

(2)第二个音素必须是/p/或/t/或/k/

第三个音素必须是/l/或/r/或/w/

如spring[spri?]strict[strikt]splendidsquare [skwe?]

Assimilation rule—rule assimilating one sound similar to the following one by copying one of its phonetic features.

For examplewhie the [i:] sound is non-nasalized in such words teapeep and flee it is nasalized in words like beangreenteamand scream.This is because in all these sound combination the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal[n] or [m].While we are pronouncing the [i:] soundwe are already getting ready to pronounce the subsequent nasal sound.

Another exampleprefix in- is not always pronouced as an alveolar nasal.

It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonat that follows iti.e.[d]is an alveolar stop.

But the[n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronouced as a velar nasali.e. [?].

This is because the consonant that follows it is [k]which is a velar stop.

同化规则通过复制一个音的语音特征来同化与下一个音相似的音。

例如，当[i:]这个音在tea、peep和escape这样的单词中没有鼻音化时，它在bean、green、team和scream这样的单词中有鼻音化。这是因为在所有这些声音组合中，[i:]后面跟着一个鼻音[n]或[m]。当我们发[i:]音的时候，我们已经准备好发后面的鼻音了。

另一个例子，in-前缀并不总是发音成齿槽鼻音。

在“轻率”一词中是如此，因为它后面的辅音，即“轻率”。，[d]为齿槽爆破音。

但是“不正确”这个词中的[n]音实际上是发软腭鼻音，即[?]。

这是因为它后面的辅音是[k]，这是一个velar stop软腭爆破音。

Deletion rule—rule governing the deletion of a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.

For examplethere is no [g] sound in signdesignparadigmbut in their corresponding forms signaturedesignationparadigmaticthe [g] is pronounced.i.e.letter g in -gn or –gm is deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.

省略规则是在一定的语音上下文中对一个音进行省略的规则，尽管它拼写正常显示。

例如，在signdesignparadigm中没有[g]音，但在它们相应的变形中，signaturedesignationparadigmatic中，g是发音的。也就是说，在-gn或-gm中，如果不添加后缀，则按规则省略字母g的发音。

1.What are suprasegmental features?How do the major suprasegmental features of

English function in conveying meaning?

什么是超切分特征?英语的主要超切分特征在表达意义上有什么作用?

Suprasegmental features –phonological features above the sound segment level.

The major suprasegmental features in English---word stresssentence stressintonation.

Stress:Depending on the context in which stress is consideredthere are two kinds of

stress:word stress and sentence stress.

When we say that a certain syllable of a word is stressedwe mean that the syllable is pronounced with greater force than the other or others.English is a language in which stress is free in that it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a wordits position varies from word to word.But the location of stress in English distinguishes meaningfor examplea shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllabel.

Similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements.Sentence stress refers to the relative force which is given to the words in a sentence.Some words are more important that other wordsand the more important words are pronounced with greater force and made more important.

Tones are pitch variationswhich are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language.

When pitchstress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolationthey are collectively known as intonation.English has four basic types of intonation:the falling tonethe rising tonethe fall-rise toneand the rise-fall tone.

The falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forwardmatter-of-fact statementthe rising tone often makes a question of what is saidand the fall-rise tine often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.

超切分特征-单音层面以上的音系特征。

英语的主要超切分特征是单词重音、句子重音、语调。

重音:根据重音所处的语境，重音有两种:单词重音和句子重音。

当我们说一个单词的某个音节重读时，我们的意思是这个音节的发音比另一个或其他音节更有力。英语是一种没有重音的语言，重音不固定在单词的任何一个音节上，它的位置因单词而异。但是英语中重音的位置可以区分意义，例如，重音的变化可能会使一个单词的词性从

名词变成动词，尽管它的拼写没有变化。名词的重音在第一个音节，相应的动词重音在第二个音节。

同样的重音交替也发生在复合名词和由相同成分组成的短语之间。句子重音是指一个句子中单词所受到的相对力量。有些单词比其他单词更重要，而更重要的单词发音更有力，变得更重要。

声调是音调的变化，是由声带的不同频率的振动引起的。英语不是一种声调语言。

当音高、重音和音长与句子而不是单词本身联系在一起时，它们统称为语调。英语有四种基本的语调类型:降调、升调、降升调和升降调。

降调表明说话是一种直截了当、实事求是的陈述，升调常常对说话内容提出质疑，而升调常常表明说话内容中隐含着某种信息。

Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学

1.What does morphology study? 形态学研究什么?

The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formation.

单词的内部结构和构成规则。

1.What is morpheme?Dissect the following words into morphemes:

Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language.

De-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-tic ana-tomy

Radia-tion geo-graph-y phil-harmon-ic de-frost-ed

Re-fresh-ment de-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ion

Circum-spect dia-logue de-form-ed com-bina-tion

1.Describe with examples the various types of morpheme used in English.

2.Words containing only one morpheme are free morphemeswhich are independent

units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. Such as

helptableroommatequickfrightable

3.–er-endis-bio--less-symthese morphemes cannot be used by themselvesbut must be

combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used

independently.They are called bound morphemes.

4.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.

5.A root is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it bears

cleardefinite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a

word. For example”geo- “ bears the meaning of “the earth”“-ology” means “ a

brand of learning” . “tele- “ meaning “distantfar””-vision” meaning

“seeingsight” .”leter-“ means “words” -al is an affix used to form adjectives.

6.Affix :

According to functions we have inflectional and derivational affixes.

Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or categories such as munberstensedegree and possessive case.

-(e)s indicating plurality of nouns;third person singular present tense of verb.

-ing indicating progressive aspect

-(e)d indicating past tense

-(e) indicating past participle

-er indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs

-est indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs

-‘s indicating the possessive case of nouns

Derivational affixes are added to an existing form which is called stem to creat a word. The stem can be a bound roota free morphemeor a derived form itself.

Root “ toler-“ + affix “-ate” tolerate

Free morpheme “quick”+ affix “-ly” quickly

Free morpheme “care” +affix “-less” careless

Derivative “careless” + affix “-ness” carelessness

According to its position in the new wordaffixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefix modify the meaning of the stembut usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.

Dis- 表示不，否定，相反的: dislikediscontinue disagree

Un- 表示不，相反的动作: uneasy unconscious unfavorable unlock

In- 表示不，incorrect inconvenient

Mis- 表示坏，错误，否定 misinform mistake misplace

De- 表示除去，向下： devaluate decentralize deoxidize

Uni- 表示单，一 : unify unilateral unicorn

Suffixes are added to the end of stemsthey modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

-er :表施动人 teacher writer beginner

-ician :表专业人员 electrician mathematician physician

-bility : 可能，能力， posibility solubility capability

-hood : 表示时期，状态 childhood manhood

-age: 表示地方 orphanageanchorage vicarage

-ary : 表示-的 elementary secondary

-ful : 表充满-的，有-性质 beautifuldelightfulsorrowful

-en: 使变得，使成为 weaken darken deepen

-ize: 使-化 modernize nationalize mechanize

-ly : 有-性质，以-方式： slowlyhighly dimlyjoyfully

-ward :向- forward eastward upward

1.What are the main inflectional affixes in English ? What grammatical meaning do they

convey ?

Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or categories such as munberstensedegree and possessive case.

-(e)s indicating plurality of nouns;third person singular present tense of verb.

-ing indicating progressive aspect

-(e)d indicating past tense

-(e) indicating past participle

-er indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs

-est indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs

-‘s indicating the possessive case of nouns

1.Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or three

words that contain each of them.

Hydro: water –hydraulic 液压 dehydrate 脱水 hydrant 消防栓，水龙头

Chron: time –e.g. chronicle 编年史 chronology 年表 chronic 慢性的长期的

Demo: people--- e.g. democracy 民主 demobilization 复员 demography 人口学

Dur: lasting –e.g. during 在-期间 durable 耐用 duration 持续

Agr: farming—e.g. agriculture农业 agrarian 土地的 agribusiness农业综合企业

Kilo: one thousand—e.g. kilometer kilogram kilobyte kilobaxxxxse

Nym: name –e.g. pseudonym 假名，笔名 antonym 反义词 synonym 同义词

Ped: foot---e.g. imped 顽童（脚忙） centipede 蜈蚣（脚多）

Rupt: breaking---e.g. rupture 破裂 abrupt 意外的唐突的 erupt 爆发

Gress: movement---e.g. progress 进步 digress 离题

Poly:various---e.g. polygon 多边形 polyglot 通数国语言 polymer 聚合物

Syn: identical –e.g. synonym 同义词 synchronic 共时的 sympathy 同情

1.State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes. Example: -er : The suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent that carries out the actione.g.write—writer

-ant : suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent e.g.assistant

-ment: suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noune.g.development

Sub-: prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser

degreee.g.substandard

-en:suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of the quality denoted by the adjectivee.g.darken

En- :prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the aquisition of the quality denoted by the adjectivee.g.enrich

-ee:suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denoted by the verbe.g.employee

-ful:suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noun e.g.plentiful

-some:suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by the noune.g.quarrelsome

-wise:suffix added to a noun to form an adverb meaning “with regard to the area indicating by the noun “ e.g.careerwise

Un-: prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of quality indicated by the adjectivee.g.unemployed

1.What are the main features of the English compounds?

Orthographicallya compound can be written as one wordtwo separate words with or without a hyphen in between.

Syntacticallythe part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semanticallythe meaning of a compound is idiomaticnot calculable from the meaning of all its components.

Phoneticallythe word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.

从拼写上讲，一个复合词可以写成一个单词，也可以写成两个单词，中间加或不加连字符。从句法上讲，复合词的词性是由最后一个元素决定的。

从语义上讲，一个化合物的意义是惯用的，不能从它的所有成分的意义来计算。

从语音上讲，复合词的重音通常落在第一个元素上。

1.Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:

解释一下复合词的形成和意义。

Example:

Nightcap noun formed by combining two nounsmeaning a drink one takes before going to bed

由两个名词组合而成的名词，意思是睡前喝的饮料

Cat’s paw : noun formed by combining two nounsmeaning a person used by another as a tool 猫爪（傀儡）:由两个名词组合而成的名词，意思是一个人被另一个人用作工具

Tablecloth: noun formed by combining two nounsmeaning a piece of cloth spread on a table to cover it

台布:由两个名词组合而成的名词，意思是铺在桌子上用来覆盖的一块布

Green-eyed: adjective formed by combining an adjective and an –ed formmeaning jealous

绿眼（眼红）：形容词，由形容词和-ed形式组合而成，意为嫉妒

Green horn: noun formed by combining an adjective and a nounmeaning a person not experienced for a job or occupation

绿角（新手）:由形容词和名词组合而成的名词，意思是没有工作经验的人

Update: verb formed by combining an adverb and a verbmeaning to bring something up to date

更新:由副词和动词组合而成的动词，意思是使某物更新

Jet lag: noun formed by combining two nounsmeaning the feeling of fatigue caused by travelling in a jet plane crossing different time zones.

时差:由两个名词组合而成的名词，意思是乘坐喷气式飞机穿越不同时区时产生的疲劳感。Bootleg: verb(also noun) formed by combining two nounsmeaning “to make carryor sell illicit goods”

盗版（私卖非法物品）:由两个名词组合而成的动词(也叫名词)，意为“制造、携带或出售非法物品”

Built-in: adjective formed by combining a past participle with a prepositionmeaning “made as an integral part”

内置的:由过去分词和介词组合而成的形容词，意思是“作为一个整体组成部分”

Cockpit: noun formed by joining two nounsmeaning the compartment in an air craft where the pilot or the crew sit

驾驶舱:由两个名词连成的名词，意思是飞机上飞行员或机组人员坐的隔间

Good-for-nothing: adjective formed by joining an adjectivea prepositionand a pronounmeaning irresponsible or worthless.

无用的:由形容词、介词和代词组成的形容词，意思是不负责任或没有价值的。

Chapter 4 Syntax

1.Define or explain the following terms: 解释以下术语

2.Syntax: a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.

句法:研究语言句子结构的语言学分支。

1.Hierarchical structure: the sentence structure that groups wouds into structural

constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituentsuch as

NPVP

层次结构:将句子分为结构成分，并显示各结构成分的句法范畴，如NP、VP等

1.Syntactic category : a word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function

such as the subject or obxxxxject.

句法范畴:具有特定语法功能的词或短语，如主语或宾语。

1.Grammatical relation:the structural and logical functional relations between every

noun phrase and the verb in a sentence.

语法关系:句子中每个名词短语与动词之间的结构关系和逻辑功能关系

1.Phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words

to form phrases and sentences.

短语结构规则:一种重写规则，允许单词的可能组合形成短语和句子。

1.X-bar theoory: a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrase structure

rules into a single format: Xӈ(Specifier)X(complement)

X标杆理论：将所有短语结构规则综合高度抽象成一个单一格式的模式:短语由(指示语)核心词(补充语)组成。指示语和补充语可有可无，核心词必不可少。

1.S-structure: a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary

syntactic movement.

表层结构:在进行必要的句法移动操作后的句法表示层次。

1.Universal grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general

principles and parameters about natural languages.

通用语法:由自然语言的一些一般原则和参数组成的语言知识体系。

1.Examine each of the following sentences and indicate if it is a simplecoordinateor

complex sentence.

A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.A clause that takes a subject and finite verband at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause.

一个简单句由一个单独的子句组成，子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，单独作为它自己的句子。一个子句既包含主语又包含限定动词，并且在结构上是独立的，这就是限定子句。

A coordinate(compound) sentence contains two clauses joined by a lixxxxnking word called coordinating conjunctionsuch as “and””but””or”.Two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal partsneither is subordinate to the otheri.e.each clause is separable from the other and can stand on its own as a structurally independent sentence.

一个并列句包含两个子句，由一个叫做并列连词的连接词连接，如“and”、“but”、“or”。一个并列句中的两个子句在结构上是对等的，都不隶属于另一个子句，即，每个子句都是相互独立的，可以作为一个结构独立的句子独立存在。

A complex sentence contains two or more clausesone of which is incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an emxxxxbedded clause and the clause into which it is emxxxxbedded is called matrix clause.

Firstan emxxxxbedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause. (subjectobxxxxjectadverbial)

Secondmost emxxxxbedded clauses require an introductory word called subordinatorsuch as “thatifforuntilafterbefore”which does not merely mark the beginning of the emxxxxbedded clause but also indicates the grammatical function of the emxxxxbedded clause in the sentence.

Thirdan emxxxxbedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independently as simple sentence unless its form changes.

一个复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被包含或从属子句通常称为从句，嵌入其中的子句称为主句。

首先，一个从句作为一个语法单位在它的主句中发挥作用。(主语宾语状语)

其次，大多数从句都需要一个被称为从属的引导词，如“thatifforuntilafterbefore”，这不仅标志着从句的开头，还表明了从句在句子中的语法功能。

第三，一个从句如果要独立地作为简单句存在，除非它的形式发生变化，否则它就不能作为一个语法结构良好的句子发挥作用。

1.Jane did it because she was asked to. complex

2.The soldiers were warned to remain hidden and not to expose themselves. simple

3.David was never therebut his brother was. coordinate

4.She leads a tranquil life in the country. simple

5.Unless I hear from herI won’t leave this town. Complex

https://www.360docs.net/doc/fd19180228.html,e the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labled constituent structure tree

diagram for each of the following sentences:

.使用适当的短语结构规则，为下列每句话绘制标记的成分结构树形图:

Sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear. The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured.They are not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one added onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.Sentences are organized with word of the same syntactic categorysuch as NP(noun phrase) or VP(verb phrase)grouped together.

句子中单词的顺序表明句子的结构是线性的。

单词在线性序列中的表面排列并不意味着句子是简单的线性结构。它们不是由按简单的线性顺序排列的单词序列组成，这些单词是按照简单的算术逻辑逐字相加的。句子由相同句法范畴的词组成，如名词词组或动词词组。

1.A clever magician fooled the audience.

2.The tower on the hill collapsed in the wind.

3.They know that the senator would win the election.

1.For each of the following two sentencesdraw a tree diagram of its underlying structure

that will reveal the difference in the relationship between John/Many and the verb

“see”.

对于下面两个句子中的每一个，画一个树状图来展示它的基本结构，这将揭示John/Many和动词see之间关系的不同。

(1)Many advised John to see the dentist.

(2)Mary promised John to see the doctor.

1.The formation of many sentences involves the operation of syntactic movement.The

following sentences are believed to have derived from their D-structure

representations.Show the D-structure for each of these sentences.

许多句子的形成都涉及到句法移位的操作。下面的句子被认为是从它们的d结构表示法派生出来的。展示每个句子的d结构。

1.The leader of the majority party was severely criticized by the media.

The media severely criticized the leader of the majority party.

1.The man throw the rake away in the yard.

The man throw away the rake in the yard.

1.Will the new shop ownner hire her?

The new shop owner will hire her.

1.What can the robot do for us?

The robot can do what for us.

commonly know as the X-bar theorythis widely recognized and highly abstract X-bar schema is capable of reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories across the language of the world.Under this approachlinguists are able to describe and explain explicitly some universal properties of natural languages

X-bar模式通常被称为X-bar理论，这种被广泛认可的高度抽象的X-bar模式能够减少单个短语结构规则的冗余，并很好地捕捉到全世界语言中所有短语类别共享的某些基本属性。在这种方法下，语言学家能够明确地描述和解释自然语言的一些普遍属性

1.Draw on your linguistic knowledge of English and paraphrase each of the following

sentences in two different ways to show how syntactic rule account for the ambiguity of sentences:

利用你的英语语言知识，以两种不同的方式解释下列句子，说明句法规则如何解释句子的歧义：

1.Smoking cigarettes can be nauseating.

2.Putting tabacco in rolled-up paper and then smoking it can make one feel sick.

3.A cigarette which gives out smoke can make one feel sick.

4.Tony is a dirty street fighter.

5.Tony is a bad guy who likes to fight in the street.

6.Tony is a sanitation worker who cleans the dirty street.

7.After a two-day debatethey finally decided on the helicopter.

8.After a two-day debatethey reached a final decision while they were on the helicopter.

9.After a two-day debatethey finally decided to use the helicopter.

10.The man is too heavy to move.

11.The man is so overweight that it is difficult for him to move around by himself.

12.The man is so overweight that it is difficult for others to move hime.

13.The little girl saw the big man with the telescope.

14.The little girl saw the man through her telesope.

15.The little girl saw the big man who was carrying his telescope.

1.Because language have recursive propertiesthere is no limit to the potential length of

sentencesand the set of sentences of any language is infinite.Give two examples to

show the recursive properties of sentences.

由于语言具有循环性，所以对句子的潜在长度没有限制，任何语言的句子集都是无限的。举两个例子来说明句子的循环性。

（1）I love music.

(2)You know that I love music.

(3) Everybody knows that you know that I love music.

1.The little girl saw the man with the telescope.

2.The little girl saw the man with the telescope which was purchased at a new shop.

3.The little girl saw the man with the telescope which was purchased at the new shop

whose owner was a good friend of the little girl.

Chapter 5

1.What are the major view concerning the study of meaning? 关于意义研究的主要观点

是什么?

The naming theorythe conceptualist viewthe contextualist viewand the behaviorist view.

命名论，意念论，语境论，行为主义论。

The oldest notions concerning meaningand also a very primitive onewas the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theorythe linguistic forms or symbolsin other wordsthe words used in a language are taken to be labels of the obxxxxjects they stand for.

Limitations:

Firstthis theory seems applicable to nouns only.Besideswithiin the category on nounsthere are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all such as ghostdragon and unicorn.Also nouns that do not denote concrete things but abstract notions such as joy impulse.

关于意义最古老的概念，也是最原始的概念，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的命名理论。根据这一理论，语言的形式或符号，换句话说，语言中使用的词被认为是它们所代表的对象的标签。

局限性:

首先，这个理论似乎只适用于名词。此外，在名词的范畴里，还有一些名词是指现实世界中根本不存在的事物，如鬼、龙、独角兽等。还有一些名词，它们不表示具体的事物，而表示抽象的概念，如喜悦，冲动。

The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct lixxxxnk between a linguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.between language and the real world)ratherin the interpretation of meaning they are lixxxxnked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richards。

In the diagramthe SYMBOL or FORM refers to the linguistic elements(wordsphrases)the REFERENT refers to the obxxxxject in the world of experienceand THOUGHT or REFERENCE resers to concept.But it is not clear what exactly is meant by "thinking of a concept".People do not actually try to see the image of something in their mind's eye every time they come across a linguistic symbol

概念主义的观点认为，语言形式和它所指的事物之间没有直接的联系。相反，在对意义的解释中，它们是通过思维中概念的中介而联系在一起的。英国的奥格登和理查兹提出的语义三角形或意义三角形最能说明这一点。

在图中，符号或形式指的是语言元素(单词、短语)，指称物指的是经验世界中的对象，思维或指称者指的是概念。但“思考一个概念”究竟是什么意思还不清楚。人们并不是每次遇到语言符号的时候都试图从他们的脑海中看到它

Contextualism is baxxxxsed on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of contesxt are recognized : the situational context and the linguistic context.The linguistic context simetimes known as co-textis concerned with the probability of a words co-occurence or collocation with another wordwhich forms part of the meaning of the wordi.e.its collocative meaningand also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance。

语境论是基于一个人可以从可观察的语境中获得意义或将意义减至可观察的语境这一假设而产生的。人们认识到两种语境：情景语境和语言语境。被称为共同文本的语言语境同时与一

个词与另一个词的共同出现或搭配的概率有关，即构成了单词含义的一部分，即它的搭配意义，也构成了特定话语之前和之后的文本部分。

Behaviorism attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. (Bloomfield1933)

行为主义论试图将一种语言的意义定义为“说话者说出它的情况以及它在听者中所发出的回应”。

Jill sees appleàStimulus-àresponsesaid to Jack “thirsty”.

Jack hearsàstimulus--àResponsepicking apple for Jill

1.What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?

什么是意义，什么是所指？它们有如何联系？

Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic formwhich is a collection of semantic meaningsabstract and decontextualized.

意义是指语言形式的内在意义，它是语义的集合，是抽象的、脱离语境的。

Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world;it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.

所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指的东西，它是形式与现实之间的关系问题。Obviouslylinguistic forms having the same sense may have different reference in different situations.

I was once bitten by a dog.

Mind youthere is a dog over there.

On the other handthere are also occasionsthough less frequentwhen linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. Venus in the east called Morning star in the west called evening star.

具有相同意义的语言形式在不同的情况下有不同的指称。

另一方面，在某些情况下，尽管不太常见，但具有相同引用的语言形式可能在意义上有所不同。金星在东方叫晨星，在西方叫昏星。

1.What are the major types of synonyms in English? 英语同义词的主要类型有哪些?

2.Dialectal synonyms-synonyms used in different reginal dialects.

方言同义词——在不同方言中使用的同义词。

British English “autumnliftlorryflat”American English”fallelevatortruckapartment”

1.Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in style or degree of formality.

文体同义词——风格或形式程度不同的同义词。

Formal casual neutral

Old man daddy male parent