GIS-based modeling of secondary hydrocarbon migration pathways and its application in the northern S
?Corresponding author at:Research Center of Remote Sensing and Geomatics,School of Communication and Information Engineering,Shanghai University,Shanghai200072,China. Tel.:+8602156337674;fax:+8602156336908.
E-mail address:lxf02@https://www.360docs.net/doc/237511178.html,(X.Liu).
Basin modeling is an important approach for exploration and development geologists to under-stand hydrocarbon migration processes.In recent years,many authors have attempted to simulate the history of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation from different aspects and by different methods (Ungerer et al.,1984,1988,1990;Hindle,1997; Hantschel et al.,2000;Wu et al.,2001;Shi and Zhang,2004).Ungerer et al.(1984,1988,1990) presented an integrated two-dimensional basin simu-lation model in which heat transfer,?uid?ow, hydrocarbon generation and migration were in-volved.Hindle(1997)simulated hydrocarbon migra-tion pathways using three-dimensional ray tracing techniques.Hantschel et al.(2000)made a research on modeling of petroleum migration using?nite element analysis and ray tracing methods.Wen and Hao(2001)simulated the pathway and process of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation in Liaohe oil?eld,northeast China,using arti?cial intelligence and visual reality https://www.360docs.net/doc/237511178.html,ing arti?cial neural network method,Wu et al.(2001)made a qualitative research on hydrocarbon migration and accumula-tion process in the Zhusan Depression on the northern margin of the South China Sea.Based on BASIMS software,Shi and Zhang(2004)quantita-tively modeled processes of hydrocarbon migration in Kuche depression,northwest China adopting pseudo three-dimensional buoyancy-driven migra-tion and accumulation model.These researches have greatly advanced the study of hydrocarbon migration.
Geographic Information System(GIS)is a widely used software system for storing,managing,analyz-ing,and visual expressing geographic information (Goodchild,1991).GIS’s powerful spatial analysis functions have made it?nd wider and wider application in the?eld of petroleum exploration, including analysis of sedimentary environments, simulation of hydrocarbon migration and accumu-lation,paleao-tectonic evolution study and three-dimensional reconstruction of oil and gas-bearing basin,resource evaluation,and reservoir character-ization,etc.(Li et al.,1998;Ramos-Scharro n et al., 2007;Hua et al.,2006;Sawunyama et al.,2006; Paulus,2000;Hood et al.,2000;Day et al.,2000; Yero-Batista et al.,2002;Grace,2001;Liu et al., 2003a,b).However,application modules provided by general GIS software are often limited.To expand the capacity of a general GIS,second development is usually necessary to allow expert’s knowledge in some special?eld to be embedded inside.The complexity of the hydrocarbon migra-tion mechanism determines that the migration pathways are unable to be modeled with common functions offered by a general GIS software.In this study,we present a GIS-based method to simulate the pathways of secondary hydrocarbon migration, in which geologic mechanisms of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation are integrated with special analysis functions of GIS.
2.Model and methods
2.1.Geologic conceptual model
Once generated,hydrocarbon will usually migrate a certain distance until it arrives at a proper site, i.e.,the so-called‘trap’,and accumulates there.Two stages of migration are de?ned in petroleum geology:one is the primary migration,which is understood as the emigration of hydrocarbons from the source rock(clay or shale)into permeable carrier beds(generally sands or carbonate),the other is the secondary migration,which is referred to as the subsequent movement of oil and gas within permeable carrier beds or reservoirs.Secondary migration is mainly driven by difference between buoyancy and capillary pressure(Selley,1998).In the scale of a basin,a carrier bed can be regarded as approximately homogeneous,and hydrocarbons within it migrate along the directions of the maximum driving force.Thus the hydrocarbons expelled from the source rocks will migrate up-dip along directions perpendicular to the strike of a carrier bed,and this makes the modeling of secondary migration route possible(Catalan et al., 1992;England et al.,1987).
According to Hindle(1997),petroleum migration pathways through a basin are determined by the three-dimensional geometry of the top boundary of a carrier bed overlain by a seal,along which hydrocarbon migrates by taking the structurally most advantageous routes.Hence,the key to model the pathways of secondary migration is to determine the three-dimensional geometry of the top surface of a carrier bed.Considering Fig.1as an example,the hydrocarbon-generation depression or source area is located at the upper-left corner,and the reservoirs and traps are situated in the middle and right parts of the?gure.When the hydrocarbons are generated and expelled from the source area on the upper-left corner,the secondary migration commences.If poor potentiality of hydrocarbon generation exists in the
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source area and only a small amount of hydro-carbons is generated,the hydrocarbons expelled from the source area will not be enough to?ll up the traps adjoining to the source area,for example, traps A and F in Fig.1and the hydrocarbon migration process will terminate at traps A and F. If the amount of hydrocarbons expelled is more than enough to?ll up the adjacent traps(A and F in Fig.1),the excessive hydrocarbons will continue to migrate upwards by taking other pathways within the carrier bed until arriving at a new trap,for example,from trap A to trap D along path A–D or even Trap E along path A–D–E.Generally, structural ridges at the top of a carrier bed are regarded as advantageous paths for secondary hydrocarbon migration(Hindle,1997),and the excessive hydrocarbons are likely to make a long distance migration along the structural ridges before their?nal accumulation at a suitable trap(Li,2006; Hao et al.,2002).Therefore,it is critical to determine the three-dimensional network of the pathways of hydrocarbon migration along the top of a carrier bed in the construction of the model. Based on the geological principles described above,we constructed the models and the corre-sponding algorithms using GIS techniques to simulate the routes of secondary migration in a carrier bed.
2.2.Models and algorithms
The digital elevation model(DEM)is a useful GIS application model.It has been widely used to analyze the directions of surface water?ow in hydrological modeling(Li et al.,2002).Processes of secondary migration of hydrocarbons in subsurface strata are similar to the surface water?ow in that both of them are?uid?ow processes controlled by gradient of the surface or the boundary along which ?ow processes occurred.The main differences of secondary hydrocarbon migration from water?ow lie in the mechanisms and?ow directions:water ?ow on earth surface is driven by gravity force, while secondary hydrocarbon migration is mainly driven by the differences of buoyancy and capillary pressure.In addition,water?ows downwards,while oil and gas migrate upwards.Therefore,to a certain degree,we can borrow the thoughts and procedures used in hydrological modeling to model secondary hydrocarbon migration.Following the above thoughts,we constructed a DEM-based model to simulate the pathways of secondary hydrocarbon migration.
Similar to what is done in hydrological modeling (Fig.2b),a DEM model for the top surface of a carrier bed is?rst generated.On the DEM model,a 3?3search window is used to determine the paths of hydrocarbon migration.The searching starts from the boundary points of a polygon source area. Based on the principle that hydrocarbons migrate upwards in a carrier bed,the paths can be determined by comparing the altitude of a pixel with its adjoining pixels(Fig.2a).Three situations are considered and discussed in details as follows.
2.2.1.Point hydrocarbon source
To make it simple,let us consider a point source area.Although a point source area does not exist in the real world,it can be regarded as one of the basic components of a real hydrocarbon source
Fig.1.Geologic conceptual model for hydrocarbon migration
(Hao et al.,2002
).
Fig. https://www.360docs.net/doc/237511178.html,parison between(a)modeling of hydrocarbon
migration and(b)that of modeling of hydrological surface water
?ow.
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area.As shown in Fig.2b,assuming the point source is located at pixel(5,4),?rst record its row and column numbers,and then center the3?3 search window at it(called central pixel).Now?nd the pixel with the maximum altitude value among the eight neighboring pixels enclosing the central pixel.If the altitude value of the found pixel is larger than that of the central pixel,then record the row and column numbers of the pixel,which is the pixel (4,3)in Fig.2b.The line segment from pixel(5,4)to pixel(4,3)is the assumed path for secondary migration.Next,move the center of the search window onto the pixel(4,3)to repeat the search process until the center of the search window moves to a trap,where hydrocarbons accumulate,or outside the study area,e.g.,arriving at the pixel (2,0)in Fig.2b.All the pixels picked out are then connected sequentially to form a line.This line represents the path of hydrocarbon migration starting from the point source pixel(5,4)(Fig.2b). The search algorithm for path of hydrocarbon migration can be generalized as follows: Assuming that A is the center pixel with altitude A0,B1,B2,B3,B4,B5,B6,B7and B8are the altitude values corresponding to the eight neighboring pixels enclosing pixel A,and C is the pixel with maximum
altitude value among the eight neighboring pixels and C0is the altitude value corresponding to C,then C0?MAXeB1;B2;B3;B4;B5;B6;B7;B8T
If C0X A0,then C is the next object pixel of hydrocarbon migration.Vector from A to C is the pathway of hydrocarbon migration to be deter-mined.Then move the search window from pixel A to pixel C and continue the search process.
If C0o A0,then A is a convex point,and the migration processes will terminate at pixel A. Several problems need to be resolved,which are discussed as follows:
(1)Termination conditions:If a convex point is
encountered,the searching will terminate,which suggests the existence of an accumulation region or a trap centered at the convex point(Fig.3a).
If a boundary pixel on the DEM is arrived but no convex point is encountered,the program will terminate,which does not mean that the hydrocarbons will accumulate at the boundary pixel but indicates that they will migrate outside the area of the DEM(Fig.3b).
(2)Treatment for divergence of migration pathway:If
two or more pixels among the eight enclosing
pixels of a central pixel have the same maximum altitude value,it suggests that the path of hydrocarbon migration is branched into two or more paths.In this case,all the pixels with the same maximum altitude will be recorded.Each of them is assumed as a new starting pixel,and the search process is repeated until the next object pixel is found(Fig.4a).As shown in Fig.4a,with the same altitude(equal to61),pixel(2,1)and pixel(2,3)can be considered as starting points of two separate pathways.At pixel(3,2),Path1 branches into two paths(paths2and3).
(3)Treatment for convergence of two or more
pathways:When two or more pathways con-verge at a pixel,to avoid the tedious calculation and to optimize the search algorithm,the new central pixel will be judged if it is located at any pathway determined previously.If yes,the search process will terminate.If not,the search will continue.As shown in Fig.4b,the search process of path2will be terminated at pixel(1,2) where path2is merged with path1.
2.2.2.Situations of polygon hydrocarbon source
A real hydrocarbon source area can be regarded as a polygon.The points on the boundary of the
Fig.3.Search process for determining a pathway of secondary hydrocarbon migration will terminate(a)at a convex point, which indicates existence of a trap for hydrocarbon accumula-tion,or(b)at a boundary point of raster DEM,which suggests that the pathway extends outside the DEM.
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polygon source area are the start points of secondary migration of hydrocarbons.Therefore, each of the boundary points can be treated as a point hydrocarbon source.
The modeling procedures are as follows.First,all the pixels on the boundary of the hydrocarbon source area are extracted.Each of the pixels is assumed as the starting point of a secondary migration path.The path is searched according to the procedures discussed above in the modeling of point hydrocarbon source.
As discussed in Section2.2.1,each path from the boundary of a source area will terminate at either a convex point or a boundary pixel of the study area. From the knowledge of petroleum geology,hydro-carbon migration from source area to a trap is generally a convergent process pointing to the structure ridge,and as the migration distance increases,the number of migration paths decreases. Small paths near the source area will concourse into several main paths.These main paths usually distribute along the structural ridges on the top boundary of the carrier bed.In order to optimize the algorithm(to decrease unnecessary tedious search),the search process will terminate at the convergent pixel in case that a path converges with a previous searched path.As shown in Fig.5a,Pixels (8,2),(7,3),(7,4),(7,5),(7,6),(8,7)are six boundary pixels of the source area,from which six migration paths are searched.Path1terminates at the convex point,pixel(3,4).Paths3and6terminate at the boundary pixels(8,0)and(4,8)of the DEM raster respectively since both paths extend out of the study area covered by the DEM.Paths2,4,and5 converge with Path1at pixels(4,4),(6,4)and(5,4),respectively.At those pixels,the search processes of paths2,4,and5terminate.
The conditions to determine whether a path terminates or not and where it terminates can be generalized as follows:
De?ne A as the current pixel through which the migration pathway passes,A0as the altitude value of pixel A,C is the set of all the pixels that have been searched out,D is the set of all boundary pixels on the original DEM raster data,B1,B2,B3, B4,B5,B6,B7and B8are the altitude values corresponding to the eight neighboring pixels en-closing pixel A,then:
C?{all the pixels that have been searched out} D?{all the boundary pixels on the original DEM raster data}
If A C C,or A C D,or A04Max(B1,B2,B3,B4,B5, B6,B7,B8),then the current pathway is terminated at pixel A,otherwise the searching process will continue.
2.2.
3.Remigration from one trap to another
As discussed above,hydrocarbons will accumu-late after they arrive at a convex point where there is a trap.If hydrocarbons expelled from a source area are more than enough to?ll up the trap,excessive hydrocarbons will?ow out from the?lled trap and re-migrate until they arrive at a new convex point (trap).Clearly,the key to determine the remigration path of hydrocarbons is to?nd the point where the out?ow starts.The so-called over?ow point is generally located at a saddle between two traps (Fig.6).An over?ow point is determined in this study following the procedures:First,?nd all the saddles between structural traps,regarding all of them as possible over?ow points.Then each remigration path is searched as described in point source in Section 2.2.1.To avoid hydrocarbons ?owing back into the starting trap,all the pixels located in the enclosure region of the starting trap are excluded.
The algorithm for searching remigration paths described above can be generalized as follows:
De?ne A as the pixel corresponding to a over?ow point of trap1,A0is the altitude of pixel A,C is the set of all pixels in the enclosure region of trap1,B is the set of eight pixels enclosing pixel A,D is the set of pixels which does not belong to C,D0is the set of all altitude values corresponding to pixels in D,E0is
Fig. 4.Algorithms for(a)divergence of a pathway,and(b)
convergence of two or more pathways.
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the maximum altitude in D 0,E is the pixel corresponding to E 0,then:
C ?{all the pixels in the enclosure region of trap 1}
B ?{eight pixels enclosing pixel A }
D ?ˉC
\B D 0?{all the altitude values corresponding to the pixels in D }
If E 0?Max (D 0)
Then E is the next object pixel of searching.
As shown in Fig.5a,pixel (2,3)is assumed as an over?ow point,and its altitude is equal to 80.Among its eight enclosing pixels,pixels (2,2)and (3,4)have the same maximum altitude value that is equal to 90.According to the algorithm of modeling for point source described in Section 2.2.1,both pixels are the next searching object pixels.Con-sidering that pixel (3,4)is an existing convex point searched and pixel (2,3)is located in the enclosure region centered by pixel (3,4),pixel (3,4)is naturally excluded in the next search process.Therefore,only
pixel (2,2)is determined as the next object pixel,which the search window will move to.The resulted remigration pathway of hydrocarbons from trap 1to trap 2is path 7in Fig.5a and the dashed line in Fig.5b.
3.Applications in the northern Songliao Basin,northeast China 3.1.Geological settings
The Songliao Basin is located in the northeastern China,bounded by the Daxin’an Mountains to the west,the Xiaoxin’an Mountains to the northeast and the Zhang Guangcai Mountains to the south-east (Fig.7).It is the largest Meso-and Cenozioc non-marine sedimentary basin in eastern China and the most important oil-producing basin in China.Underlain by Precambrian to Paleozoic meta-morphic and volcanic rock series,the Songliao Basin experienced three large sedimentary and tectonic evolution stages,which were the develop-ment of extensional faulted depressions during late Jurassic to early Early Cretaceous,thermal sub-sidence during late Early Cretaceous to early Late Cretaceous,and structural inversion during late Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic age.The basin is characteristic of double-layered construction of lower faulting and upper depression.The Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary covers of more than 8000m in thickness were developed in the basin.
The stratigraphy consists of upper Jurassic Huoshiling Formation,lower Cretaceous Shahezi Formation,Yingcheng Formation,Denglouku For-mation,and the members 1and 2of the Quantou Formation (Ren et al.,2004).Study shows that three sets of hydrocarbon source rocks,that are consisted of lacustrine mudstones and coal beds,
Fig.5.Migration pathway model for a polygon source
area.
Fig.6.Determination of an over?ow point.
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developed in member1of Huoshiling Formation, Shahezi Formation,and member2of Yingcheng Formation,respectively.Shahezi Formation is the most important hydrocarbon rock since its thick-ness is big and its content of organic carbon is high. Clastic reservoirs are found primarily in the Denglouku Formation,lower Quantou Formation, and member4of the Yingcheng Formation in the studied area.These reservoirs were composed of alluvial fan and braided river conglomerates and ?uvial,deltaic sandstones.Members1and2 of the Quantou Formation are mainly consisted of mudstones interbedded with sandstones,and are good caprocks of the reservoirs(Ren et al., 2004).Therefore,Huoshiling-yingcheng Formation, Denglouku Formation,and members1and2of Quantou Formation formed vertically a wonderful source-reservoir-cap assemblage.Natural gas gen-erated from Huoshiling-yingcheng Formation?rst migrated into the Denglouku Formation,then migrated laterally along the top of the transmit strata of the Denglouku Formation which was sealed by the overlying regional caprocks of members1and2of the Quantou Formation, and?nally accumulated and formed hydrocarbon reservoirs in suitable traps.Natural gas forming-reservoir history research indicates that the deep-buried hydrocarbon source rock generated and expulsed hydrocarbon during the end of Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous,and the natural gas reservoir formed dominantly during Late Cretaceous(Ren et al.,2004)(Fig.8).Therefore, the paleaotectonics of the top of Denglouku Formation(carrier bed)formed during the end of Quantou Period could be approximately regarded as contemporaneous structure in the natural gas dominant forming-reservoir period.This paper regards the paleaotectonics of the top of Denglouku Formation formed during the end of Quantou Period as the dominant structural surface that has controlled the formation of natural gas reservoirs.
3.2.Data preparation and processing
The modeling of hydrocarbon migration pathways is based on SuperMAP 3.2(URL:http://www. https://www.360docs.net/doc/237511178.html,/),a general GIS software devel-oped by the Institute of Geography,Chinese Academy of Sciences.A simulation module was con-structed through second development,and integrated into the software platform.The modeling procedures consist of four steps including data preparation,data processing,searching of the migration pathways,and result visualization(Fig.9).Details are as follows.
3.2.1.Data preparation
Before modeling,some geologic data need to be collected,including timing and phases of hydro-carbon migration and distribution of source rocks, main carrier beds,and paleo-structural traps before and during the period of hydrocarbon migration.In the study,data of the main phases of hydrocarbon migration and distribution of source area were adopted from Ren et al.(2004).The paleo-structural contour map of the top of the main carrier bed, Member4of the Denglouku Formation,and the spatial distribution map of structural traps were adopted from Liu et al.(2003a,b).
3.2.2.Data processing
By spatial interpolation,a DEM data set of the top boundary of the Dengluku Formation carrier bed was generated from the corresponding line data
Fig.7.Sketch map showing main structural elements in Songliao
Basin,northeast China.Shaded rectangle indicates study area
(modi?ed from Zhou and Littke,1999).
X.Liu et al./Computers&Geosciences34(2008)1115–11261121
set of paleo-structural contour.The polygon data set of structural traps of the main reservoir, Member4of the Denglouku Formation,and the line data set of hydrocarbon source area boundary were transformed from a vector data set to a raster data set using the SuperMAP GIS function of vector-to-raster transformation.From the trans-formed raster data set,the pixel sets within the structural traps and on the boundaries of the hydrocarbon source area were extracted through raster data extraction function attached to the GIS platform.
3.2.3.Migration pathway searching
Taking each pixel in the pixel sets of hydrocarbon source area boundaries as start point of secondary hydrocarbon migration,all the paths were traced one by one by using our module.If remigration of hydrocarbons from one trap to another occurred, the over?ow point of the trap was chosen as a new starting point in?nding the trap to trap re-migration path.All the pixel sets for the migration pathways were?nally converted into vector line data set.3.2.4.Visualization
Using3D visualization function of SuperMAP GIS,the line data set of modeled hydrocarbon migration pathways was superposed on the polygon data set of successive structural traps of member 4of the Denglouku Formation and the DEM data set of top surface of the main carrier bed (Denglouku Formation),and was?nally visualized three-dimensionally(Fig.10).
3.3.Simulation result analysis
The paleo-structural map of the top boundary of the carrier bed(member4of the Denglouku Formation)during the dominant migration period is shown in Fig.10.The grayish white regions represent the source area of natural gas,the black lines are the modeled migration pathways of natural gas,the black polygon regions are the accumulation areas or traps of natural gas,and the gray polygon regions are the structures located outside the migration pathways where no natural gas was trapped or accumulated.Fig.10shows that most of the structures adjacent to the source areas of
natural gas are located on the pathways of natural gas migration.Almost no gas accumulates in the structures that are far from the source areas,and these structures are mostly located in the south of the study area.More concretely,the structures located in Changde,Chengping,Wangjiatun,Xingcheng, Xingshan,and western Shangjia have advantages of preferentially capturing the natural gas emigrated from the northern source area,and the structures situated in Zhaozhou,Erzhan and Chaoyang can capture the natural gas coming from the southern source area.Well-drilling results proved that there exist commercial gas pools in the regions of Changde,Chengping,Wangjiatun and Xingcheng, and low-productive gas pools in Zhaozhou and Chaoyang regions,while no gas has been found in most of the structures in western Shangjia region.To demonstrate the validation of our modeling,we made a comparison between the modeling results and the drilling results.Among the25available gas-producing drilling wells,only seven are outside the predicted accumulation area,indicating the robust-ness of our modeling algorithms(Fig.10).3.4.Discussions
A simple modeling method based on GIS technology was presented in this paper to simulate the migration of natural gas.In the method natural gas was assumed to move upward from its genera-tion area to a trap structure,which should be higher in altitude,to accumulate.The corresponding algorithms for the determination of the migration pathways were described.The movement of natural gas from trap to trap was also considered in the model.The effectiveness of the method was proven in the simulation of the movement of natural gas in Songliao basin,since the modeling result showed a good agreement between the locations of commer-cial gas wells and the model predicted gas accumu-lation areas.
Research on oil and gas migration mechanisms indicates that secondary hydrocarbon migration points to the directions of the most rapid decreasing of?uid potential and the least resistance.Subsur-face hydrocarbon?uid potential is related to burial depth,pressure,and capillary resistance in the strata
Fig.9.Procedures for modeling pathways of secondary hydrocarbon migration.
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(Wen and Hao,2001;Luo et al.,2005).It is obvious that the secondary hydrocarbon migration is con-trolled by multiple factors.Due to lack of data on ?uid potential distribution,only the geometry of top boundary of the main carrier bed (member 4of Denglouku Formation)was considered under the assumptions that there is no abnormal pore ?uid pressure and that there is constant capillary resistance in the carrier bed in our modeling of secondary migration pathways in the northern Songliao Basin,northeast China.If quantitative ?uid potential data of the carrier bed are available,the best choice is to substitute structural surface con?guration with corresponding ?uid potential contour map in modeling in order to achieve a better modeling result.
Fig.10.(a)2D visulization and (b)3D visualization of modeling results of secondary hydrocarbon migration in northern Songliao Basin,northeast China.
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An additional factor in the determination of hydrocarbon migration is faults.Faults may act as pathways or seals of hydrocarbon migration.The migration of hydrocarbons along a fault follows the same way as in a carrier bed(Luo et al.,2005).In our modeling,the effect of faults on migration was not considered because no major fault was found to cut through the cap rocks(Quantou Formation) overlain on the carrier bed.If there exist faults cutting though the carrier bed and the overlain cap rocks,then their in?uence on hydrocarbon migra-tion should be considered in modeling. Acknowledgements
We thank for the fund support from the Program of Technological Innovation Team of Excellent Middle-Aged and Youth Teachers in Colleges of Hubei Province,China(Grant no.T200602),the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant no.60672053),and Postdoctoral Scienti?c Program of Shanghai,China(Grant no.06R2-14129).We also would like to acknowledge the support from Leading Academic Discipline Project of Shanghai,China(T0102),and Leading Academic Discipline Project of Shanghai Educational Com-mittee,China(J50104).
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