英语国家概况 Chapter 12

Chapter 12 Ireland Today

I. Political Structure 政治体制

Ireland is a parliamentary republic and a unitary统一的s tate under the 1937 Constitution. The Constitution is theoretically 理论上applicable适用于to the whole of Ireland. Citizens of Northern Ireland are also considered citizens and can run for office 竞选in the South. The Republic of Ireland consists of 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland.

根据1937年的宪法，爱尔兰是议会制共和国是中央集权国家。理论上讲，此宪法适用于整个爱尔兰岛，北爱尔兰公民也被视为共和国公民，能够竞选南方的职位。爱尔兰共和国由爱尔兰岛的32个郡中的26个郡组成。

1. Executive power 行政权

suffrage 直接

投票任期七年He sommons or dissolves the Oireachtas议会(Parliament); signs and promulgate s 颁布laws; appoints judges, the prime minister and other members of the cabinet;内阁and heads the defence forces.武装部队In addition, he has the right to refer提交certain bills to the Supreme Court for a decision on their constitutionality符合宪法and refer certain bills to the people by referendum. 全民公决The president is advised and assisted in his duties by the Council of State.国家委员会

他召集或解散议会；签署和颁布法律；任命法官、首相和其他内阁成员；统率武装部队。此外，他有权提交一些议案给最高法院裁决是否符合宪法，也有权提交一些议案给人民进行全民公决。国家委员会给总统提供建议，并帮助总统履行职责。

Article条款

(taoiseach总理)

the House of Representatives众议院(Dail) and that he shall appoint the other members of the government on the nomination of the prime minister with the previous approval of the Dail. Up to the legal limit of the life of the Oireachtas, the prime minister holds office either until he chooses to resign辞职or until he loses the support of the majority in the Dail. The Dail' s constitutional job of appointing the prime minister is a purely纯粹的formal one. Every new Dail nominates the leader of the majority party or group to be prime minister. Then it usually adjourn s休会while the leader calls upon 要求the president to be formally appointed the taoiseach. He then returns to the Dail to put forward the names of his government, who are approved en bloc, then appointed by the president and assigned their departments by the prime minister.

宪法第13其他政府成员由众议院事先批准，首相提名任命。在议会的合法届期内，

首相一直担任其职，直到他自己辞职或是失去众议院的多数支持。完法赋予众议院任命首相的工作相当正式。每届新众议院提名多数党或多数团体领袖为首相。当要求总统正式任命多数党领袖为首相时，众议院通常要休会。然后多数党领袖再到众议院提出其他政府成员名单，这些名单一起被批准后由总统任命，并由首相分配他们所负责的部门。

The government's responsibility to the Dail is collective集体的, and it is required to meet and act as a collective authority. Collective responsibility requires the government to present a united front统一战线to the public and to the Dail. This feature特点of Irish parliamentary life is due to party solidarity政党团结and loyalty. Historically,从历史上看political loyalty政党忠诚was and remains a notable public virtue公共美德, and a strong sense of allegiance忠诚to" leadership has persist ed.坚持至今In politics as in religion, turncoat s变节者are despise d.轻视Members vote consistently一致地as they are bid den吩咐by their leaders. In addition to除之外being collectively共同地responsible, ministers 部长are also individually 单独地responsible for the performance执行of their respective各自地ministries.

政府向众议院集体负责，它应该作为一个集体权力部门聚集和行动。集体负责制要求政府对公众和众议院以统一战线的面目出现。爱尔兰议会活动的这一特点归功于政党团结和忠诚。从历史上看，政

党忠诚一直是著名的公共美德，对领袖强烈的忠诚一直坚持至今。像宗教信仰一样，政治上的变节者受人鄙视。因其领袖的要求，政党成员总是全体投票一致。除集体负责外，部长们也对其各自部门的工作个人负责。

Over the years, the office of the taoiseach总理has grown in power and authority权威in comparison with that of the president. As the head of government the taoiseach is answerable应负责的only to the Dail. 众议院He is required only to keep the president "generally informed on matters of domestic and international policy". In the past he was kept "generally informed" through regular visits from the prime minister. Since the 1970s, these visits have become far from完全不regular经常地.

多年来，与总统职位相比，首相职位的权力在增加。作为政府首

他仅需要让总统对“国内和国际事务的方针有总体了解”。而在过去，他要通过与总统的经常会晤，使总统有“总体了解”。自从20世纪70

年代以来，这些会晤日益减少。

2. Legislative power 立法权

the Constitution, the Oireachtas has the sole power of making laws. The only exception例外is with regard to 关于laws passed by the European Parliament that apply to适用于Ireland. The Dail currently目前has 166 members, called in Irish

teachtai dala (T. D. 's). The country is divided into 41 constituencies.选区In 1987 a total of 13 constituencies returned three members each, 13 returned four members and the remainder returned five members each. The Seanad 参议院has 60 members, 11 nominated directly by the taoiseach, 43 elected by five panel s小组of candidates候选小组-the Cultural and Educational Panel, the Labour Panel, the Industrial and Commercial Panel, the Agricultural Panel and the Administrative Panel-and the remaining six by the universities. TDs 众议院议员and

Senators 参议院议员

只有议会拥有制定法律的权力，惟一的例外是由欧洲议会通过的有关适用于爱尔兰的法律。目前众议院有166个议员，称为爱尔兰共和国众议院议员。全国划分为41个选区。1987年，13个选区中每个选区有三个议席，另13个选区中每个选区有四个议席，其余选区中每个选区中有五个议席。参议院有60位议员，儿位由首相直接提名；43位由五个候选小组选举产生——文化和教育组，劳动组，工商业组，农业组和行政组；剩下的六位议员则由大学产生。

The powers of the Seanad, 参议院as defined by the Constitution, are in general less than those of the Dail. The Seanad has complementary 补充的powers with the Dail in broad areas such as the removal免除from office of a president or judge, 免除总统或法官的职务the declaration宣布and termination of a state of emergency终止国家的紧急状态, the initiation of bills other than除了money bills 财政议案and the annulment废除of statutory instruments.法令文件The Seanad has prior优先的or exclusive他性的powers in other areas. A petition请愿书to the president to decline 拒绝to sign a bill until the matter can be put before the people in a referendum全国公决requires the assent of a majority of the members of the Seanad (but only one-third of the

particular interest of a person or locality地区, as distinct from a measure

宪法所规定的参议院的权力通常比众议院的权力要少。在免除总统或法官的职务，宣布和终止国家的紧急状态，开始实施除财政议案外的议案，以及废除法令文件等广泛事务上，参议院与众议院的权力互为补充。但在其他一些领域，参议院有优先权或排他性的权力。如果提交请愿书要求总统拒绝签署议案，而提交全国公决，则必须获

得参议院的多数议员同意(但众议院只需三分之一同意)

别于公共政策议案，其目的是促进个人或地区的特别利益，

3. Irish laws and courts 爱尔兰法律和法院

modified修改by subsequent 随后的legislation and the 1937 Constitution. Statute s passed by the British Parliament before 1921 have the force of law法律效力except those repeal ed废除by the Irish Oireachtas. By law, judges are appointed by the president on the advice of the government and can be removed 免职from office only by resolution决议of the Oireachtas. The high court has full original jurisdiction原始司法权and power in all matters of law. It also can determine the validity合法性of any law within the provisions of the Constitution. Normally the high court is presided over主持by a judge sitting with a jury of 12. The Supreme Court is the court of final appeal. It consists of a chief justice 大法官and six other justices. It also can decide if the provisions of any bill passed by the Oireachtas violate违反the Constitution on the matter being referred to the court by the president. In addition, it may declare existing legislation to be unconstitutional.违反宪法

随后的立法和1937年的宪法对之加以修改。除那些被爱尔兰议会废除的成文法之外，1921年之前英国议会通过的成文法有法律效力。根据法律，总统根据政府的

建议任命法官，而只有议会决议

才能对法官免职。高级法院在所有的法律事务上有充分的原始司法权。它也具有裁决宪法条款范畴内的任何法律的合法性。通常高级法院由一位法官主持，由12人组成陪审团。最高法院是最后的上诉庭。它由一个大法官和其他六个法官组成。它也能裁定总统提交给法院仲裁的、由议会通过的任何法案的条款是否违反宪法。此外，它可以宣布现有立法违反宪法。

II. Political Parties 政党

Fein was the guerrilla游击队movement that wrest ed谋求independence from the British in 1921. It split 脱离in 1921 over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The larger faction派系,Cumann na Gael, later Fine Gael统一党, accepted the treaty and dominion status 自治领地位within the British Commonwealth while the minority, Fianna Fail, led by Eamon De Valera,埃蒙·德·凡勒拉refused it and continued the struggle. From 1931 to 1948 and from 1951 to 1973 Fianna Fail dominated Irish politics, but it has alternated 交替with Fine Gael-led coalition s since 1973. The only other national party of some size is the Labour Party. These three parties together generally secure over 90% of the votes cast in any general

election. Historically, minor parties have never thrive d 繁盛in Ireland.

1921年谋求脱离英国而独立的游击队运动中产生的。因对英爱条约的分歧于1921年分裂。其中较大派系，即后来的统一党，接受英爱

条约和在英联邦内的自治领地位，而少数派共和党，则由埃蒙·德·凡勒拉领导，拒绝接受条约，并继续斗争。193l到1948年，以及1951年到1973年由共和党主宰爱尔兰政治，但从1973年起，它与统一党领导的联盟交替执政。其他

政党，具有一定规模的、惟一全国性的是工党。这三大政党通常能在任何大选中获得90％以上的选票。从历史上看，小党从未在爱尔兰繁盛过。

(1) Fianna Fail共和党(Soldiers of Destiny命运) (替天行道士兵党)was originally a radical 激进的republican group. Now it is the largest political party in Ireland, with a record of over 40% electoral support in every election. Its membership is estimated at between 72,000 and 90,000. Fianna Fall's policies are a mixture of old and new. Neutrality 中立, promotion of Gaelic and strong support for a united Ireland are the historic plank s 施政纲领(principles) in the party platform.政党舞台Many of its economic policies are more recent新: support for the EC, a high level of public expenditure to reduce unemployment, and full

employment. Fianna Fail continues to demand that the British be withdrawn from Northern Ireland but it opposes 反对the use of violence to achieve this goal. Fianna Fail has a broad popular 广泛的群众基础base among all classes and in all regions. In the early days its support came mainly from the rural areas and from small farmers, but today it also attracts the business classes. On February 6, 1992, Albert Reynolds 阿尔伯特·雷诺兹was elected leader of the party.

替天行道士兵党)

40％以上的支持率。其党员估计在72，000到90，000人之间。共和党的政策是新旧政策的混合。在政党舞台上，中立、提倡盖尔语和强烈支持爱尔兰统一是其历史的施政纲领。“其许多经济政策则更新些：支持欧共体，提高公共费用开支，减少失业。共和党继续要求英国人撤出北爱尔兰，但反对使用暴力达到这一目标。共和党在所有阶级和所有地区都有广泛的群众基础。在早期，其支持者主要来自农村地区和小农场主，但今天它也吸引了商界的支持。1992年2月6日，阿尔伯特·雷诺兹当选为政党领袖。

(2) Fine Gael (Irish Tribe) )统一党(自我党)was the larger of the two factions when Sinn Fein 新芬党was split in 1921. The roles 角色have been reverse d 转换since then. Just as Eamon De Valera 埃蒙·德·凡勒拉dominated Fianna Fail共和党, so Fine Gael was

dominated in the 1920s and 1930s by William T. Cosgrave,威廉·T·科斯格雷prime minister of the Irish Free State from 1922 to 1932. From its outset 开始Fine Gael 统一党was a conservative party favouring balanced budgets and lower taxation. As it supported free enterprise 自由企业it attracted the backing支持of businessmen. But its support of British ties 关系proved to be a liability,不利的especially after the rise of Eamon De Valera to power. From 1932 it lost six general elections. However, in 1948 Fine Gael under John A.Costello约翰·A．科斯特洛formed the first coalition 联合government after it defeated De Valera 德·凡勒拉in the general election. With the support of the smaller parties, Fine Gael's share 得票at the national polls全国选举rose to上升至32% in 1954. During the 1960s Fine Gael changed its image from a conservative party to a socially progressive party社会进步党, advocating a program of expanded social services. Like Fianna Fail 共和党, it has support in every part of the country, in both urban and rural area, yet it remains somewhat more class-based. It is stronger among the farmers and the middle class. The party is less in favour of promoting 提倡Gaelic盖尔语than Fianna Fail 共和党is. Its membership is estimated at between 35,000 and 40,000.

(2)统一党(自我党)在1921年新芬党分裂时占较大部分。但从那以后角色转换了。正如埃蒙·德·凡勒拉领导共和党一样，在20世纪20年代和30年代，统一党由威廉·T·科斯格雷夫领导，他在

1922年到1932年间任爱尔兰自由邦首相。从一开始统一党就是个保守政党。赞成平衡预算和较低税收。因其支持自由企业，吸引了商人的支持。但它支持与英国的关系，而结果证明是不利的，特别是在埃蒙·德·凡勒拉上台以后。从1932年起，它六次在大选中失败。但在1948年的大选中，约翰·A．科斯特洛领导的统一党击败了德·凡勒拉，组成第一个联合政府。在小党的支持下，统一党在1954年的全国选举中的得票上升至32％。在20世纪60年代统一党改变其保守党的形象，转向社会进步党，提倡扩大社会服务事业。与共和党一样，统一党遍布全国，在城市和农村地区都有支持者，而且仍有些以阶级为基础，它在农民和中产阶级中更受欢迎。这个政党不像共和党那样提倡盖尔语。估计该党党员在35，000到4 0000人之间。

was founded in May 1912 by James Larkin詹姆斯·拉金and James Conholly,詹姆斯·康诺利who was executed处死for his part 参与in the 1916 Easter Uprising复活节起义. It received 10 % of the vote in the first two general elections after independence, but after the rise of Fianna Fail 共和党to power, the party went into eclipse瓦解. Since 1948 its fortunes运气have been tied to those of its frequent coalition partner, Fine Gael. Under the leadership of Brendan Corish,布兰登·科利斯the party has tried to transform itself from being a trade union organization to a social democratic 民主party of the West European type.

"the Irish Labour Party's policies include high taxation, public ownership 公有制of essential industries主要工业and services, extensive广泛的social benefits,社会福利full employment, opposition to the EEC and moderation温和on the question of Northern Ireland,

1912年5月由詹姆斯·拉金和詹姆斯·康诺利成立，后者因其参与1916年的复活节起义而被处死。独立后的前两次大选中有10％的选票，但在共和党上台后，工党近乎瓦解。从1948年起，它的运气与它经常性的联合伙伴统一党的运气联系在一起。在布兰登·科利斯的领导下，工党试图把自己从一个工会组织转向西欧类型的社会民主党。爱尔兰工党的政策包括高税收、主要工业和服务业的公有制、广泛的社会福利、充分就业、反对加入欧共体，以及在北爱尔兰问题上的温和观点。

(4) The Progressive Democrats 进步民主党were founded in 1985 by Desmond O' Malley.德斯蒙·奥玛利It is the largest of the minor parties少数党after the 1987 elections. It gained 14 seats as compared to only 12 for Irish Labour. The Progressive Democrats describe themselves as centreright中右派. Other minor parties include the Workers' Party, 工人党the Democratic Socialists 民主社会主义党and the Communist Party of Ireland.爱尔兰共产党

(4)进步民主党由德斯蒙·奥玛利建于1985年。它是1987年大选后最大的少数党。与爱尔兰工党仅得12席相比，它得到14个席位。

进步民主党把自己描述为中右派。其他少数党有工人党、民主社会主义党和爱尔兰共产党。

III. The Economy 经济

Ireland is a free-market economy 自由市场经济with a dominant private sector.私有经济占主导地位It is one of the least developed countries 最不发达国家in the EC. Its small economy小型经济is marked by slow growth, high unemployment and imbalance s不平衡in public finance公共财政. The per capita GNP is US $ 9,975 in 1991. This is only half that of the United Kingdom and is higher than only Spain, Portugal葡萄牙and Greece among OECD countries经济合作与发展组织国家. The 1991 GNP growth rate of 2% was due largely to the vigorous 活力performance of foreign-based high-tech industries. Even though employment is growing, unemployment remains at a high 19.2% (1991). Ireland has a high budget deficit,预算财政赤字estimated at 8% of the GNP.

爱尔兰是以私有经济占主导地位的自由市场经济。它是欧共体中最不发达国家之一。其小型经济的特点是发展缓慢、失业率高和公共财政的不平衡。1991年的人均国民生产总值为9，975美元。这仅是联合王国的一半，在经济合作与发展组织国家中仅高于西班牙、葡萄牙和希腊。1991年的国民生产总值增长率为2％，主要归功于以外资为基础的高新技术工业充满活力。尽管就业在增加，但失业率仍高

达19．2％(1991年)。爱尔兰的预算财政赤字很高，估计占国民生产总值的8％。

1. Agriculture 农业

Although Ireland cannot be considered to be primarily首先an agricultural country in the same sense that it was over the past centuries, agriculture still is a major sector. It generate s 生成an estimated 11% of the GNP, employs 17% of the labour force and produces 25% of total exports.

从过去几个世纪的同一意义上看，虽然爱尔兰不能首先被看作是农业国，但农业仍然是主要产业。它大约占国民生产总值的11％，雇佣了全国17％的劳动力，占出口总产品的25％。

have a small piece of arable land and a considerable相当大的area of pasture and meadow.牧场They depend chiefly for their living on occasional cash crops 经济作物and some from of livestock.家畜The principal crops include barley, 大麦wheat, sugar beets 甜菜and potatoes. But the farmer derives a sizable相当大的part of his income from livestock. Some 84 % of the value of gross output总产值in agriculture is accounted for by livestock and livestock products, almost all of which derives from cattle and milk. Pigs, sheep and lambs account

for most of the remainder. Dairying 奶制品工业is specialized in certain areas,notably显著地the Munster lowlands芒斯特低地and the area stretching inland from Donegal Bay.多内加尔湾

和大面积的牧场和草地。他们主要收入依靠偶尔种植经济作物和饲养某种家畜为主。主要作物包括大麦、小麦、甜菜和土豆。农民的一大部分收入来自家畜，农业总产值的84％来自家畜和家畜产品，基本上都是牛和牛奶。猪、羊和羊肉在剩余的家畜和家畜产品中占大多数。奶制品工业专门集中于某些地区，著名的有芒斯特低地和从多内加尔湾延伸至内地的地区。

Except for the northern farms, Irish agriculture is not intensive.集约型Because of good pastures and heavy rainfalls the cattle is left in the fields for as long as 10 months a year. There are few market gardens 果蔬园in a land well suited for bountiful大量的crops. Tomatoes, apples and soft fruits 软水果are grown in very small quantities. Thus the greater part of Ireland is farmed far below远低于its capacity.可以开发的程度

除北部农场外，爱尔兰农业不是集约型的，因其良好的牧场和丰富的雨量，牛群一年长达10个月都放养在地里。虽然很适于种植大量的庄稼，但是果蔬园却很少。西红柿、苹果和软水果种植量极小。因此爱尔兰的较大部分的农耕远

低于它可以开发的程度。

The most significant recent development in Irish agriculture has been membership in the European Community. EC membership enabled Irish farmers to participate in the Community's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and export出口their products to a wider range of markets.

爱尔兰农业近期发展中最重要的是其成为欧共体成员。欧共体成员身份使爱尔兰农民能参加共同体的公共农业政策并把他们的产品出口剖更广范围的市场。

2. Manufacturing 制造业

in 1922 had been concentrated in Dublin and the other main ports. The initial最初的expansion was achieved under a policy of strong protectionism保护主义and self-sufficiency自给自足, but major changes in industrial policy have occurred since about 1960. The government made a concerted effort 一致努力to spread the benefits of industrialization to all parts of the country. A proper investment climate 投资环境was created to encourage export-oriented companies to be established in Ireland. Preferential treatment优惠待遇was given to

firms willing自愿to be located in less-developed regions, away from the major urban centres. As a result of these policies, industry is now spread widely around the country. However, the density is still higher in the eastern half of the nation. 45 % of national industrial employment is concentrated in three main areas: County Dublin, the Cork city科克市and harbour 港口区

area and the Limerick-Shannon-Ennis triangle. 利默里克——香农——埃尼期三角区Foreign investment has also been welcomed in industry. As a result, the industrial share of the GNP rose from 25.7% in 1949 to 33% in 1981. In contrast, 与此相反the agricultural share decreased during the same period, from 29.5% to 10%

自从20世纪60

1922年独立时，小型工业单位集中在都柏林和其他主要港口。最初的发展是在强烈的保护主义和自给自足政策下取得的，但自从约1960年以来工业政策发生了重大变化。政府一致努力把工业化的好处传播至全国所有地方，为鼓励那些在爱尔兰成立、面向出口的公司，创造了合适的投资环境。给予自愿把公司建在远离大城市中心的不发达地区的公司优惠待遇。这些政策的结果是工业现已遍布全国。但是在东半部的分布仍很稠密。45％的全国工业就业集中在三大主要地区：都柏林郡，科克市和港口区以及利默里克——香农——埃尼期三角区。工业也欢迎外国投资。因而，国民生产总值中的工业份额从1949年的25．7％上升至1981年的33％。与此相反，同期的农业份额却从

29．5％降至10％。

Of industrial employment, 66 % are employed in manufacturing. Within manufacturing, employment triple d 三倍in the metals and engineering sector,工程业from 21,100 in 1958 to 61,000 in 1982. A similar rate of increase was reported by the chemicals sector. At the same time, the share of labour-intensive劳动密集型industries, such as footwear,鞋袜业clothing and textile s,纺织业declined from 19.2% in 1958 to 8.6% in 1980. Industrial output has grown by an average of 5% annually since tariff barriers 关税壁垒were eliminate d取消in 1977. The most dramatic显著growth was experienced by hi-tech industries高新技术工业, which have grown by 15% annually.

在工业就业中，66％的工人雇佣于制造业。在制造业内，金属业和工程业的就业人数从1958年的22，110人增长至1982年的61，000；增长三倍。同时劳动密集型工业的份额，像鞋袜业、服装和纺织业，则从1958年的19．2％降到1980年的8．6％。自从1977年取消关税壁垒以来，工业产量每年平均增长5％。而高新技术工业的增长最显著，每年增长15％。

Successive 连续几届Irish governments have adopted a consistent 一贯的and positive approach 积极的方针toward attracting overseas investment海外投资. Over 300 foreign firms set up manufacturing bases

in Ireland from 1973 to 1983. The number of people employed by foreign-owned industries increased by over 19,000 during the same period, to 80,000. The new foreign firms now account for over 70 % of manufactured export s.出口制成品

爱尔兰政府连续几届都采用一贯和积极的方针吸引海外投资。从1973年到1983年间，300多家外国公司在爱尔兰建立生产基地。同期外资工厂的雇佣人数从19，000多人增至80，000人。新的外资公司的产品占出口制成品的70％以上。

3. Mining 矿业

Ireland has been a major mineral producer since the 1960s. The most significant success is the discovery of zinc-lead deposit s矿藏at Navan纳凡in Count y Meath. 米斯郡With the output from the Navan mine, Ireland is now the largest producer of lead and zinc concentrates in Europe. In addition to除…. 外metals, the country's mineral resources 矿产资源include the so-called所谓的industrial minerals工业矿物such as barite重晶石, limestones石灰石, phosphate磷酸盐and gypsum.石膏Most of the copper铜矿and silver mines have been shut down.关闭There are eight coalfield 煤区areas in Ireland but only three are being worked. Coal production peaked at 240,000 tons in 1957 but has since declined to 75,000 tons annually.

自20世纪60年代以来，爱尔兰一直是主要的矿产生产国。其