racial segregation in USA

Racial segregation in the United States, as a general term, included the racial

segregation or hypersegregation of facilities, services, and opportunities such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation along racial lines. The expression is most often used regarding the legally or socially enforced separation of African Americans from other races, but is also used regarding the separation of other minorities from the majority mainstream communities.

Racial segregation in the United States has meant the physical separation and provision of separate facilities (especially during the Jim Crow era), but it can also refer to other manifestations of racial discrimination such as separation of roles within an institution, such as the United States Armed

Forces up to the 1950s when black units were typically separated from white units but were led by white officers.

Racial segregation in the United States can be divided into de jure and de facto segregation. De

jure segregation, sanctioned or enforced by force of law, was stopped by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. The process of throwing off legal segregation in the United States lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s when civil

rights demonstrations resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De

facto segregation — segregation "in fact" — persists to varying degrees without sanction of law to the present day. The contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies,mortgage discrimination and redlining among other things. Hypersegregation is a form of racial segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the inner city are African Americans and the suburbs surrounding this inner core are often white European American residents.[1] The idea of hypersegregation gained credibility in 1989 due to the work of Douglas Massey and Nancy A. Denton and their studies of "American Apartheid" when whites created the black ghetto during the first half of the 20th century in order to isolate growing urban black populations by segregation among inner-city

African-Americans.[2]

种族隔离在美国,作为一个通用术语,包括种族隔离或hypersegregation的设施,服务和机会,如住房,医疗,教育,就业,和交通运输沿着种族线。表达最常用的就合法或非裔美国人从其他种族的社会强制分离,但也可用于对其他少数民族的分离,从大多数主流社区。

这意味着在美国种族隔离的物理分离和提供单独的设施(尤其是在吉姆·克罗时代),但它也可以指其他表现如分离机构内的角色,如美国的种族歧视武装部队当黑色的单位通常从白色单位分开,但白人军官的带领下到上世纪50年代。

可分为法律上和事实上的种族隔离法律上的隔离,制裁或强制执行的法律效力的,是在1954年由联邦最高法院的决定后,布朗诉教育委员会实施了一系列停止在美国的种族隔离。在美国摆脱法律上的隔离的过程一直持续到20世纪50年代,20世纪60年代和70年代的大部分民权示威时,导致舆论转向了反对强迫隔离。事实上的隔离-隔离“事实” -仍然存在不同程度的不制裁法律到目前的一天。在美国看到当代种族隔离的居民区已形成的公共政策,其中包括按揭歧视和圈阅。

的Hypersegregation是一种形式的种族隔离,种族群体组成的地理分组。大多数情况下,这发生在城市内城那里的居民是非裔美国人和周边郊区的这种内在的核心往往是白色欧洲美国居

民。[1] hypersegregation的想法在1989年获得了信誉,由于工作的道格拉斯梅西南希A. Denton和学业时创建的白人黑人贫民窟以孤立日益严重的城市黑人人口之间的隔离内城的非裔美国人。[2]在上半年的20世纪的“美国种族隔离“

美国的奴隶制度在1861年至1865年南北内战后得以最终废除,但种族隔离制度在战后仍然得以存续,种族矛盾依然严峻,有色人种特别是黑人与白人之间的新的矛盾逐渐积累,到二十世纪已极端尖锐,如果再以一场战争而取得种族隔离制的废除,历史进步意义固然巨大,但付出的代价恐怕会更为巨大。幸运的是,在法治的旗帜下,人民运用法律武器开辟了一个新的战场,以宪法为依托,以争取自由和平等权利的一系列案件为代表,终于汇成民权运动的潮流,创造了历史。

在这一系列案件中,联邦最高法院对布朗诉托皮卡教育委员会案(Brownv.BoardofEducation)的判决最为著名,它吹响了结束种族隔离制度的号角。

美国南北战争后,奴隶制度虽然已经被废除了,但种族隔离在一些州还是相当普遍地存在于现实社会,“隔离但平等”原则还深深地存在于人们的社会意识之中,虽然1938年最高联邦法院对盖恩斯诉加拿大一案的判决及1950年最高联邦法院在同一天判决的“斯威特诉培恩特案”和“麦克劳林诉俄克拉荷马案”,动摇了顽固的“隔离但平等”原则。但在美国对黑人种族的严重歧视和种族隔离制度依然有着深刻的历史和法律根源,在法律上并未根除。根据美国总统民权委员会1947年的一份报告,普莱西案是导致美国,特别是美国的南方,许多公共和私人机构普遍实行种族隔离,各类种族隔离立法陆续出台的根本依据。但随着美国社会的民主化,黑人权利的进一步解放成为美国社会和世界历史发展的迫切要求。从而,在法律上彻底铲除种族歧视和种族隔离制度的桎梏,也成为历史前进的必然趋势。

沃伦法院的判决在法律上消除了“隔离但平等”原则,使得各种具有种族隔离痕迹的法令制度归于无效,引发了美国社会的重大革新,也推动了美国民权运动的发展、民主的进步。为美国彻底根除种族隔离制度、扩大黑人权利做出了推动性的贡献。

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