毕业论文外国语论文模板 How to Improve English Reading Ability

毕业论文（设计）开题报告

毕业论文

题目How to Improve English Reading Ability in Practice

姓名学号

专业年级

指导教师职称

年月日

摘要

本文研究英语委婉语的定义、起源与发展，分类及其应用和交际作用。在此研究上，我们了解到英语委婉语是语言交际中的一种较为普遍的现象，也是人类文明发展的产物。在英语中，委婉语的产生与宗教的影响和英语国家的文化背景有着密不可分的关系。同其他语言中的委婉语一样，英语委婉语被广泛地使用在人们活动的各个方面，发挥着避讳、礼貌、掩饰等交际功能。对委婉语的了解，可以减少语言交际中的困惑或尴尬，而且通过使用更文雅或适当的英语委婉语，可以改善和协调人际关系。此外，在邓炎昌、刘润清在《语言与文化—英汉语言文化对比》一文的研究结果上，我们了解到英语委婉语的语用功能，在社会的进步和人类文明发展中，它始终伴随着整个社会的言语交际过程，发挥了很好的、不可替代的作用。罗森智力在英语委婉语的词典一文中谈到了英语委婉语的社会功能，说明了它是调剂人际关系的一个十分重要的手段。研究和了解英语委婉语，不仅能明显地提高学习者的英语鉴赏和应用水平，而且能了解到英美等国家的社会心理和风俗文化，更重要的是对于英语教学和英语学习也具有一定的启发和指导意义。

关键词：英语委婉语；起源；发展；应用；交际功能

Abstract

This thesis is aiming at discussing the definition, origin and development, classification, application together with social functions of English euphemisms with specific examples which help learners to better understand the functions and usage of English euphemisms in order to communicate better. English euphemism is a common phenomenon in communication, also it is the outcome of human civilization. In the English world, the origin of euphemisms has close relationship with the religion and culture background of English-speaking countries. English euphemisms have been widely used in all aspects of our daily life and have three social functions: taboo; courtesy and concealment. To comprehend euphemisms can lessen the confusion or embarrassment in communication; moreover, it can harmonize interpersonal relationship. Besides, on the basis of the conclusion, Dengyanchang and Liurunqing have referred to the English euphemisms’ pragmatic functions in Language and Culture-English Chinese Language Culture Comparison. From it, we know, with the development of society and human civilization, it plays a very important role in the verbal communication. Moreover, Rawson, Hugh has also talked about the English euphemisms’ social functions in A Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doublespeak and explained that it contributes to adjusting interpersonal relationship.

Therefore, studying and comprehending English euphemisms can improve the learners’ level of English appreciation and application and to know the social psychology and custom culture as well. Last but not least, it can also enlighten and guide us for English teaching and learning.

Keywords: English euphemisms; origin; development; application; social functions

Contents

摘要................................................................................................................................ I Abstract........................................................................................................................ I I

1. Introduction (1)

2. Definition, Origin and Development of English Euphemisms (3)

2.1 Definition of English Euphemisms (3)

2.2 Origin and Development of English Euphemisms (3)

3. The Classification and Application of English Euphemisms (5)

3.1 Classification of English Euphemisms (5)

3.2 Application of English Euphemisms (5)

3.2.1 English Euphemisms for “Dead” (5)

3.2.2 English Euphemisms for “Bathroom” (5)

3.2.3 English Euphemisms for “Pregnant” (6)

3.2.4 English Euphemisms for “Disease” (6)

3.2.5 English Euphemisms for “Occupation” (7)

3.2.6 English Euphemisms for “Politics” (7)

4. The Social Functions of English Euphemis ms (8)

4.1 The Function of Avoiding Taboo (8)

4.2 The Function of Courtesy (9)

4.3 The Function of Concealment (10)

5. Conclusion (11)

Bibliography (12)

Acknowledgements (13)

1. Introduction

Euphemism is a kind of verbal form created by people who want to reach ideal effects in the social communication. It is not just a language phenomenon, but a social linguistic one. Comprehending and mastering English euphemisms not only can improve the ability of English reading comprehension, but also obviously strengthen the learner's level of English appreciation and application. More importantly, it can help us know the social psychology and custom culture of Britain and America together with any other countries. As long as we carefully study the wider usage of English euphemisms and understand social functions of euphemisms, we can comprehend and use them better. Hence, studying and comprehending it can help learners training of cross-cultural communicative sense. In addition, it can also enlighten and guide us for English teaching and learning.

English euphemism is a common phenomenon in human verbal communication. It is a much more polite statement when people talk about those things which make them unhappy or embarrassed. It is well known that euphemism is both a language phenomenon and a culture phenomenon. In the verbal communication, since you are afraid of hurting others' feelings or you are not allowed to say something manifest, you intentionally avoid speaking directly. Sometimes you need to talk obscurely in order to reach implicit effect. So it is the outcome of social psychology factors along with pragmatic elements. From it coming into being, it has a close relation with social culture areas. To some extent, it mirrors generality and particularity of social development, social values, ethics as well as cultural nationality and intercommunity. As a result, euphemism is the language reflection of social culture psychology.

As for this topic, there are some scholars studying it as follows: Dengyanchang and Liurunqing have referred to the English euphemisms' pragmatic functions in Language and Culture-English Chinese Language Culture Comparison. With the development of society and human civilization, it plays a very important role in the verbal communication. Moreover, Rawson, Hugh has also talked about the English euphemisms' social functions in A Dictionary of Euphemisms and Other Doublespeak and explained that it contributes to adjusting interpersonal relationship. This topic mainly discusses the definition, classification, origin and development, application as well as the social functions of English euphemisms.

This thesis aims to help us understand language culture and improve our social communicative abilities.

2. Definition, Origin and Development of English Euphemisms

2.1 Definition of English Euphemisms

English euphemism originated from euphemisms of Greek. Its prefix eu- means well, good and its stem -pheme- means speech so that euphemism is the word of good omen. Though different dictionaries emphasize different aspects, they still express the same meanings. In other words, they translate the taboo, sensitive, vulgar language into the more implicit, pleasant way to get more elegant, gentle language effect.

2.2 Origin and Development of English Euphemisms

English euphemism is the reflection of social psychology in language; it is also the outcome of certain social cultural environment. So its origin and development are bound up with the change of times. Originally, it had something to do with religion. As a result of both Britain and America believing in Christianity, in the long history, religion has influenced human cultural all aspects. Especially in the long middle century, religion's power and influence covered everywhere in order that Christianity’s tenets became the mental norm of the society. Hence, as to the most frightening natural phenomenon, such as “dead”,people would relieve from the religion. In the meanwhile, because of the effect of religion ideas, those which replaced natural phenomenon's language were considered more mental meanings that caused the English euphemisms of “dead”originated from the Bible or others about Christianity's legends where it incarnated the Christianity's view of life and the religion explanations of dead. For example, to return to the dust; to pay the debt of nature; to be called to God and so on. Besides, Christianity affected English euphemisms a lot, even the other sides of life. For instance, to get sb 's goat，to get on the right side of sb, the serpent's tongue, fig leaf, etc. Those all originated from Bible.

With the development of society, people in more and more areas are going to make use of English euphemisms. In modern life, except traditional taboos using them, so do the sensitive fields. Such as money, position, politics, military affairs and so on. In every history periods of Britain and America and any other countries, to cover up the reality, politics community conceals the tense laborer relation by largely adopting English euphemisms. Such as, phase itself out, industrial dispute, etc.

The origin and development of English euphemisms are also very closely connected with the women's status in society. Respecting the women is the symbol of a society's civilized degree. With the improvement of society and women's status, it is becoming a common way that we attach much more importance to women's feelings. And we adopt implicit way to express because we could not speak directly before female; moreover, the population of female occupies nearly half of the whole population. So it is a necessary choice that we use English euphemisms in women's occasions.

3. The Classification and Application of English Euphemisms

3.1 Classification of English Euphemisms

English euphemisms can be divided into two parts: traditional euphemisms and style euphemisms. Generally speaking, the former is closely related to the taboo，such as disease, dead, funeral and so on. If we speak directly, others will feel vulgar and impolite. Therefore, we'd better not speak like that but we should talk about something implicitly so as to make people feel polite. As a matter of fact, the latter is the compliment and has nothing to do with taboo. In the communication of Britain and America, in order to indicate oneself having culture, education, and politeness or reach one's goal, people sometimes could make use of some exaggeration or modification to pay the compliments on the unhappy things. In the cross-cultural communication, if we don't understand euphemisms' pragmatic functions, which may lead to misunderstanding or embarrassment, it might make the communicative activities interrupt or fail. As a wide language phenomenon, euphemism plays a crucial important part in improving interpersonal relationship, promoting communicative activities and achieving ideal communication.

3.2 Application of English Euphemisms

3.2.1 English Euphemisms for “Dead”

No matter when people don't like to mention “dead”, in that way, they can lessen their pains because of “dead”. It is well known that there are a great many words and phrases to say “dead” in Chinese. For example, pass away, dedicate oneself to and sacrifice oneself, etc. And there are also a large number of different statements in English. Such as depart; meet one's end; end one's days; to be no more; pass away; go west; to breathe one's last; fall asleep; to lay down one's life; to give up the ghost; to answer the last call; to abandon the world; to pay the debt of nature; to be asleep in the arms of God; to be safe in the arms of Jesus; to be at peace; to be at rest; to be brought to one's last home; to be gathered to one's fathers; to be taken to paradise; to meet one's maker; to join the angels; to return to the dust; bite the bullet; to go to glory and so on.

3.2.2 English Euphemisms for “Bathroom”

Although it is avoid-less that we go to bathroom everyday and that is our physiology pattern, with the development of human civilization, we will try to avoid those words and speak other more implicit words in the elegant and formal occasions. For example, relieve oneself, go to the bathroom, etc. In the English world, “bathroom culture”is much more colorful. For instance Ladies'(Room), Men’s (Room), Gents’. WC (water closet) is the most common euphemism used by European. Moreover, there are more implicit phrases to say Ladies'(Room).Such as, dressing room, powder room, and lounge and wash room. When talking with other people, we want to go to the bathroom, we can ask: May I please be excused? May I go to the bathroom, please? May I please leave the room? When at home or in the company, we could also say: May I use the facilities? What is the geography of the house? If meeting some good friends, we may speak humorously like these: I’m going to do my business. I am going to my private office. I am going to answer the nature's call. Besides, women can talk about like this: Can I go to add some powder?

3.2.3 English Euphemisms for “Pregnant”

People often adopt some implicit expressions because “pregnant” has some relation with “sex”. To describe it, we will say someone is pregnant in Chinese. In the English world, we will say: She is expecting. She is five years gone. In addition, to wear the apron high; to be in a delicate condition; a lady-in-waiting. Certainly a mother-to -be is the same with the example in Chinese.

3.2.4 English Euphemisms for “Disease”

No matter where the persons are, they are afraid of disease and they are not willing to mention it, especially incurable disease. To lighten the patients' pressure, improve their physiology endurance and strengthen their confidence to overcome disease, people make use of some evasive statements. For instance, they often speak bigC or long illness instead of cancer，speak social disease instead of syphilis and AIDS，speak lung trouble instead of tuberculosis，speak the old man's friend instead of pneumonia. As we know, pneumonia and tuberculosis were not cured in the past, and people frightened those like afraid of cancer today, so those diseases were taboo at that time. Though Medicine and Pharmacology has developed dramatically nowadays, we are not afraid of those like before but we still continue

to speak English euphemisms. If someone is mad, we say someone is a little confused. If someone is deaf，we say someone is hard of hearing. If someone is blind, we say someone is visually retarded. If someone is fat，we say someone is weight-watcher. If someone is crippled，we say someone is physically handicapped.

3.2.5 English Euphemisms for “Occupation”

We usually think that brain labor is the noble job but the physical strength labor is the lowly job the reason is that there is a great different between the white collar and blue collar as for rewards. There are also the same situations in the western countries. In order to avoid the lowly job bringing people uncomfortable and eliminate their psychology's occupational discrimination, people try their best to make this lowly occupation tactful by using exaggeration to raise their levels. Such as road-sweeper or dustman. When we mention “sweep” or “dust”，it occurs to us that a person whose hands hold a broom and head wears a straw hat is cleaning the street. In order to avoid this image, people in Britain and America call him or her cleaning operative, the same with the title in Chinese. We address the garbage man as sanitation engineer. We address the butcher as meat technologist. We address the prostitute as street girl, business girl or call girl. And we also address the prostitution as the old profession.

3.2.6 English Euphemisms for “Politics”

In the political speech, English Euphemisms are often used to lower the seriousness of the events to conceal. In the western countries, people call economic crisis recession or depression. People call strike industrial action or industrial dispute. People call the country of backward economy developing country. People translate bombing into giving massive air support. In the Second World War, Fascist had adopted these euphemisms as follows: strategic camp or final solution. In recent years, in order to give the military actions some humanitarianism, surgical strike is a new statement to say war. From the views of politicians, they explain the political events. So the euphemisms play a significant role the reason is that it becomes the media of expressing the political views and produce a kind of social real meanings.

4. The Social Functions of English Euphemisms

Euphemisms in English and Chinese refer to all aspects of our daily life. From different angles, euphemisms reflect the standard of behavior, social usage, thinking model, feeling of beauty, values, and ethics of people. It plays an important role in communication for three aspects as follows:

4.1 The Function of Avoiding Taboo

There is linguistic taboo in every culture and every society. The linguistic taboo is the same with the word that is improperly used in certain occasions because it is close relation with the English euphemism. People all think that avoiding taboo is the standard of judging the communicative targets' civilized accomplishment and reflecting the improvement of the society. That is the reason why it has been widely used. Only because of the different cultural views and life customs, the taboos which we avoid are different.

English euphemisms can replace taboos. When it comes to body, body position, and physiology phenomenon and so on, we often adopt euphemisms. People say stomach or tummy instead of belly. When talking about washroom, people speak :wash one's hands, powder one's face, answer nature's call，relieve oneself, go to the bathroom (wash-room),go to see one's aunt and so on.

Dead is the subject that people most frighten. Living, agedness, disease and dead of a person is irresistible natural pattern. However, people in the east and west all avoid those because “dead”means unfortunate and disaster. People sometimes avoid it to memorize the dead, to praise the dead or only to avoid it. Therefore, it appears a large number of euphemisms which reach far more 100 statements in total in English and Chinese. In some occasions, when talking about the word “dead”, people will make use of some euphemisms as follows: they speak the loved one rather than the dead; they speak the memorial park or remembrance park rather than the cemetery. If we want to expre ss the word “die”, we will say as follows: pass away，sleep, go to heaven，depart this life，to expire，to be no more，to lay down one's life, to go to sleep，to end one's day，to breathe one's last，to join the majority，to be gone to a better place. In addition, we address the fighter who died in the army as firing one’s last shot or making the ultimate sacrifice and so on.

Everyone who lives in the world is unavoidable being ill, even in one's whole life. Hence, people avoid referring to the subject of disease. If he has got cancer, they will say: He has long (terminal) illness. He has got the big C. And we translate AIDS into social disease or SID (sexually transmitted disease).

Although being old is the natural pattern, people still would rather not face the fact. In many countries, especially the women don't like others who say that they are old. So, when speaking the old people, we will say: senior citizen, the longer lived, the advanced in age, golden year.

4.2 The Function of Courtesy

In daily life or more formal occasions, when referring to about genitalia or the secret position of body, we always try to avoid the vulgar language and adopt more implicit euphemism in order to make speakers comfortable.

When talking about the appearances, people usually make use of euphemisms. If She is fat, we will say: She is plump (full-figured).If she is thin, we will say: She is slender (slim).Besides, if he is fat, we will say: He is stout. He is big. He is well built. If someone is ugly, we will say the word: plain or homely. We address the disabled person as handicapped or the differently able person. We address the blind person as visually challenged person. We address the crippled person as physically challenged person. We address the disable students as special students.

At the same time, euphemisms can also heighten the social status. Though occupation is considered as high or low, some people still have biases against certain occupations. To heighten the social status and resist the bias of society, people speak some occupations adding very strong words of technicality. We speak the building maintenance engineer or security officer instead of janitor. We speak waste manager, sanitation engineer or sanitation worker instead of garbage-man or garbage collector. We speak beautician instead of hairdresser. We speak dye artist instead of a person who dyes one's hair. We speak agriculture technician，agriculture engineer or agriculture science specialist instead of farmer. We speak automobile engineer instead of mechanic. We speak domestic engineer instead of housewife. We speak utensil maintenance man instead of dishwasher. We speak tree surgeon instead of tree-trimmer. We speak meat cutter or meat technologist instead of butcher.

4.3 The Function of Concealment

The reason why English euphemisms can achieve excellent communicative effect is that it can produce sense of beauty in the receiver's psychology or conceal the ugly things. Therefore, it is used for concealing and beautifying in the political life. To conceal the guilt of war, when some countries declare war, they speak massive exchange rather than war. They speak incident rather than military force conflict in the border of two countries. They speak pacification rather than killing people and setting fire. They speak active defense rather than aggression. They speak pacification of enemy infrastructure rather than bombing people. They speak anti-personal weapon rather than the weapon of killing people. They speak energy release rather than nuclear reactor. They speak a casualty or a heavy casualty rather than the dead person. They speak termination with extreme prejudice rather than assassination. They speak source rather than spy. They speak ECM (electric countermeasures) rather than spying.

Some countries also conceal the domestic economy depression, unemployment of workers, etc. They address the domestic economy depression as disinflation or deflation. They address the areas of low employment rate as gray areas. They address the words” fire or dismiss” as “transitioned or workforce adjustment”. They address out of work as outplacement or layoff. They address the poor person or reliever who receives welfare as needy and dependent person or the economically disadvantage individual.

5. Conclusion

English euphemism is a kind of language phenomenon and it is used to adjust interpersonal relation. Moreover, euphemism is a social linguistic phenomenon. By using it, we can avoid hurting others. It is widely used as a rhetoric expressive skill in communication. And that is in all language. It can eliminate misunderstanding and friction and harmonize the interpersonal relationship. Language has close relation with our daily experiences so that we seldom think of its role but English euphemism proves its efficacy. It almost relates to all aspects of our life. Such as politics, war, culture, etc. Due to different purposes, people make use of euphemisms reflecting their values, aesthetical standard, and way and life attitude in the English-speaking countries. In the English studying and communication, adopting proper euphemisms can make our expression much better, communication more smooth and interpersonal relation more harmony. Besides, we should realize the difference of euphemistic expressions in the east and west to avoid improper translation. In the English communication and writing, we should avoid making use of vulgar words and avoid exaggerating. When using it, we should think more and conjecture in order to make the communication smoother. It originates from the practical language and it is widely used, but it is developing with the change of human activities. What’s more, it promotes the development of linguistics and extends the whole part in our life, but it is still waiting for people to study more. By analyzing the euphemisms, we can have a better understanding of its definition, classification, origin and development, application, social functions as well. If we are able to catch the characteristics and properly use it, we will communicate with others much better.

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Acknowledgements

Many people have influenced the writing of this thesis either directly or indirectly.

I am particularly indebted to my academic supervisor XXX who provided insightful guidance and valuable information for me. Her/His patient attitude, enlightening suggestion, intelligent efforts, constant encouragement and invaluable critiques to me over the months made the studying process a pleasurable one.

My special gratitude also goes to XXX. I would also like to express heartfelt thanks to XXX and XXX.

In addition, my whole-hearted thanks should go to other teachers and my classmates who have helped me in one way or another in my study.

What is more, I am obliged to my dear family, my mother and my father who are always beside me and behind me.

Last but not least, I would give my thanks to my friends who are supportive of me, especially my best friend, XXX, who offered me a lot of help in ….